Figure 1.-- The hard-pressed regular Army was bolstered by the Territorials. The British Army reorganization abolished the Militia (1908). With the outbreak of the War (August 1914), the Government mobilized the Territorial Force. |
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While the fleet could be used to protect the Empire, it could not be used to oppose and defeat the Germany Army. For this Britain needed a large conscript army. For political and financial reasons the British never did this. Rather they maintained a relatively small, but highly professional army. As a result, when Germany invaded Belgium and France, the BEF which was rushed across the Channel was such a small force that the Germans almost reached Paris and won the War (1914). The BEF slowed the Germans, but it was the French Army that stopped the Germans on the Marne. Britain had fought many wars on the Continent, but as alliance in which the British deployed relatively small forces to bolster allies. World War I would be the first time that that Britain would deploy a massive army on the continent. Britain continued to fight the War with a volunteer force until losses and German presure made it necessary to instutute conscription. After the disaster on the Somme (1916), the British Army had to be rebuilt. It would be that conscript army after the near collapse of the French Army (1917) that with the new American Army that would eventually crack the German Western Front (1918). The regular Army was bolstered by the Territorials.
England in contrast to the other major European powers maintained only a small fully volunteer, professional army. It was well-trained and disciplined, but very small. While the fleet could be used to protect the Empire, it could not be used to oppose and defeat the Germany Army. For this Britain needed a large conscript army. For political and financial reasons the British never did this. Rather they maintained a relatively small, but highly professional army. Britain had fought many wars on the Continent, but as alliance in which the British deployed relatively small forces to bolster allies. World War I would be the first time that that Britain would deploy a massive army on the continent.
The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was a brand new Nritish military formation. It was created in an imprtant reform effort undertaken by Richard Burdon (subsequently Viscount) Haldane. The traditional British Army organization was the regiment. And standard British military operations involved transporting regiments or constiuent battalions to the conflict zone. They were then organized into larger units upon arrival. British military thinking began to change at the turn-od-the 20th century, largely because of substantial German military spending and the bellicose nature of Kaiser Wilhelm II. Bothe Army and Royal Navy iniitiated reforms. The developing treaty relationship with France meant that Britain needed to have a cohesive force in bing to send across the Channel to support the French Army. The Haldane reforms resulted in the organization of the Regular Army forces in Britain into an 'expeditionary force' of six infantry divisions and one cavalry division. In continental termswhere contries had large conscript armies, this was a rather small force. But it was well trained and equipped and was availble for immediate deployment. When Germany invaded Belgium and France (August 1914), Britain did not have a large conscript army like the Germans and French. But it did have the BEF. Unlike World War II, few in Britain or anywhere else in Europe believed a general European war was likely even a month before the war broke out. The British immediately deployed four of the six infantry infantry divisions and the cavalry division were rushed across the Channel. They the Germans in Belgium. The British managed to do this faster than the Germans expcted, but it was a very small force. The unexpected stiff resistabce of the Belgian Army and the BEF managed to slow the Germans down, but not stop them. The Germans very nearly reached Paris and won the War (September 1914). It was the French Army that ultimatey stopped the Germans on the Marne. This was only possible, however, because th Belgians and BEF has slowed and exhausted the Germans. While the BEF performed well, it did not have the size to play a decisive role. It also suffered very substantial losses. To win the War, Britain would eventuallyu find that they needed to build a large conscript army like the Germans.
Britain was the only country that attempted to fight World War I with a volunteer army. The small professional army was quickly deployed to France as the BEF. While small, the professionalism and training of the BEF played an important role in slowing the German advance through Belgium. Casualties were, however, horrendous and the British launched high profile recruiting drives. Another problem unanticipated was that often skilled workers went into the army. This had an impact on the war industries. A scheme was put in place to use unskilled workers. This was necessary to not only replaced skilled workers, but to expand production to meet battlefield needs. One source estimates that as many as 30 percent of British artillery shells were duds.
Whole towns would volunteer. The Accrington Pals regiment is the most famous of this type of recruitment. Forming units from specific communities, however, have a terrible downside. If that unit sustained inordinate casualties, the community involved could be devestated. The Accringtom Pals were decimated at the First Battle of the Somne. It was in this battle were a week long bombardment was to have ruined the German positions and meant that the British advance would be achieved easily. However once over the top and walking across no-mans land the British discovered that the artillary bombardment had not knocked out them German positions. The German soldiers came out of their under ground shettlers and machined gun the advance. Another regiment wa formed in part from the community around Sandriham. This was Edward VII's country estate. Queen Alexandria still lived there and King George V had grown up there. The regiment was cut to pieces at Galipoli.
Throughout 1914 and 1915, the British launched a major propagabda campaign to induce men to volunteer. Britain continued to fight the War with a volunteer force until losses and German presure made it necessary to instutute conscription. No British Government had ever dared conscript men for military service--even during the Napoleonic War crisis. (Although the Royal Navy did resort to poress gangs. Prime Minister Herbert Asquith resisted army requests. The BEF was, however, being chewed up in the killing fields of the Western Front and the force by the end of 1915 could no longer be maintained by volunteers. Asquith finally saw no alternative. He finally introduce a conscription measure. Parliament passed the first Military Service Act (January 1916). This was the first conscription laws ever passed in Britain. At first only single men and childless widowers aged 18 to 41 were called up. The Act applied to men 18-41 years of age. The second Military Service Act made all men regardless of marital service eligible for military service (May 1916). The War Office was given authority to extend the service of men whose enlistments hadcexpired and re-examine men previously rejected for health reasons. The third Military Service Act gave the War Office authority to further increase conscription (April 1917). This entiled the examination of Home Service Territorials, men earlier discharged, and individuals previously rejected. The War Office also announced a new list of Protected Occupations eccluded from conscription. Parliament passed the fourth Military Service Act which gave the Government permission to end occupational exemptions and the 2 month grace period for those whose exemptions had been terinated (January 1918). The last or fifth Military Service Act was a desperate measure taken by Parliament as the War in early 1918 reacged a critical stage (April 1918). The age range was lowered to 17 and extended to men age 55. The law was also extended to Ireland, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. In addition, released or exchanged POWs were no longer exempted. The British conscripted more than 2.3 million men during the War.
The Battle of the Somme is one of the major engagements of World War I. The BEF supported by the French attempted to take the German's strong defensive position in the Somme valley. The French had convined the Brittish commander Douglas Haig to launch an offensive to relieve the German pressure on the French at Verdun. The British casualties were horrendous. It is probable that if modern media existed at the time that the War would have endeded at Verdun and the Somme leaving Imperial Germany with its authoritarian government and militaristic social structure dominant on the continent. The British public if they had fully understood what had happened would not have tolerated the War. The same can be said of the French Verdun. The Somme was a terrible bloodletting. After the Somme there was no illusions in Britain about what war meant. After the disaster on the Somme (1916), the British Army had to be rebuilt. Major changes were made in British tactics which along with the AEF would stop the German Western Offensive and then crack the German Western Front wide open, forcing the Germans to seek an armistice.
The British Army became critically importsnt after the losses at Verdun which almost broke the French Army. The Allies faced the greatest crisis of the War since the initial German invasion in 1917. England began the War with only a small professioinal army. The BEF was rushed to France and Belgium in August 1914, but for the first years of the War, it was the much larger French Army that was bulwark of the Allied defense on the Western Front. Thus the French suffered much larger casualties than the British. The blood letting at Verdun was particularly severe. Marshal Foch was replaced with General Robert Nivelle’s who launched the Chemin des Dames Offensive (1917). The offensive failed with disastrous losses--over 100,000 men were killed or wounded,. It also brought the French Army close to collapse. Discontent flared among French frointline troops. In addition to a collapse in confidence with their commanders, French troops vigorously criticized how they were treated: food, home leaves, rest, and other matters. Thet had many justfiable complaints. While French officers received home leave, some enlisted men had been in the trenches for 3 years without any leave. One report suggests that 30,000 men left the trenches and began walking home. At one point 54 divisions which constituted half the French Army were not responding to orders from commanding generals. The High Command feared that the Army was near collaspse. The French bturned to Marshal Petain, the hero of Verdun. He acted decisively. There were mass arrests and about 24,000 men were tried. The trials attempted to focus ion the leaders. In the end 400 men were sentenced to death of which 50 were shot. The rest were shipped to Devil's Island. Petain also instituted reforms to address the many legitimate vgrevences of the men. The mutiny lasted 6 weeks. Incredibly thev Germans do not seem to have preceived what had occurred. A major German oiffensive at this time might have cracked the Frenchb Army. Petain succeeded in restoring discipline in the Army, but itv was a changed Army. The French were no longer willing to launch major offensives against the Germans, but they would hold the line if attacked. It was to be the British and British Empire troops along with the new American Army that began to arrive in 1917 that in the end would crack the Hindenberg Line.
The European powers in the years leading up to World War I had engaged in a massive arms race, building powerful navies and huge conscript armies. America built a creditable navy, but te army barely existed. Even after 3 years f fighting in Europe, the United States had not significantly expabded its army. President Wilson's message to Congress requesting a declaration of war contained no specifics about how the war would be waged--least of all any indication of sending a large land army to France. Many of the Congressmen who voted for war did not fully understand that America would need to send a large land army to Europe. Senate Finace Committee Chairman Thomas S. Martin of Virginia when told by an Army officer testifying before his committee on April 6, 1917,that funds might be needed for operations in France, exclaimed "Good Lord! You're not going to send soldiers over there, are you?" And this was not what Wilson had intended. Wilsom had hoped that American war supplies would be sufficent. He appears to have thought that the mere threat of an American army would bring the Kaiser to his sences. [Burk, p. 234.] When this did not occur and the British and France clamoring for reinforcements, the President had to ask Congress for a miitary conscription law. Within days of the declaration of war, 13 April a British mission led by Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Arthur J. Balfour and Lieutenant General Tom Bridges ldeparted from Liverpool (April 13). The French sent a mission headed by former Premier René Viviani and Marshal Joseph Joffre. The two delegations had separate meetings with American officals. The made a number of requests and suggestions. Chief among them was the immediate need foe American troops to bolster the Wesrn Front. Wilson chose General Black Jack Pershing to lead the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). When he arrived in France, the French were shocked. They had expected a large American Army. Pershing did not bring an army with him because there was no such army. The Allies made it very clear that what was needed was men, A large America Army was critically needed. America as late as Spring 1917 only had a small volunteer force. The United States would have to recruit, train, and equip its army and this would take some time. The Germans knew this and gambled that the U-boat campaign and their massive Spring 1918 offensive would win the War before the Americans could intervene in force. Significant numbers of American soldiers did not begin to arrive in Fance until the summer of 1918. At that time about 10,000 Americans arrived daily, unimpeded by the U-boats.
It would be Britain's new conscript army after the near collapse of the French Army (1917) that with the new American Army that would eventually crack the German Western Front (1918). When the German Spring 1918 Western offensive ground to a halt the Allies initiated their offensive. This was largely an Anglo-American opperation. The French Army since 1917 was largely restricted to defensive operations. The British in 1914 had only a small professioinal force. By 1918 they had built a large conscript army. The army had learned a great deal on the Somme (1916) and with a new tank force was ready to assault the Hindenberg Line. The Americans when they entered the War in 1917 also had only a small proifessional army. America rapidly built a large concript army and by mid-1918 that army was ready to assault the Germans. The Allies wanted the Americans to be used as replacement troops in British and French units. Pershing insisted on fielding an American army--the AEF. Having help stop the German offensive, the Americans along wwith the Brirish went on the offensive. The Allied Hundred Days Offensive proved to be the war-winning offensive of World War I. The Allies struck (August 8). The German Spring-Summer offensive had severely bleed the German Army. Unfer the powerful Allied onslaught, the Germans finally began to crack and large numbers of soldiers began to surrender and desert. The Allies forced the Germans to retreat.
The hard-pressed regular Army was bolstered by the Territorials. The British Army reorganization abolished the Militia (1908). Rather the yeomanry and volunteers were organized into the new Territorial Force. The familiar yeomanry regiments kept their traditional titles. The Territorial infantry battalions were renumbered. They were given consecutive numbers following the the battalions numbers of the Regular Army.
Regular battalions usually were mumbered the 1st and 2nd and Special Reserve the 3rd and 4th. This was a convetin followed throughout the Army with the exception of the all-Territorial London Regiment. This was by far the largest Territorial unit, being made up of 34 battalions at its greatest strength. The Territorial Force during the War did not include Ireland or UK dependencies (Isle of Man and the Channel Islands).
With the outbreak of the War (August 1914), the Government mobilized the Territorial Force. The Territorials would also plasy a role in World War II, often referred to as the Home Army.
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Created: 7:27 AM 5/14/2006
Last updated: 3:41 PM 3/18/2007