Figure 1.--Here some German children are performing a stage play in 1917. The back of the photograph reveals their names and whom they played. From left to right: Russian, Englishman, Serb, Frenchman, Austrian, Michel (this name is often used in caricatures for a German). It is a German play and wartime so the German has the sword. (A German reader asks, "Who would have the sword when it was wartime and a U.S. play?) The play is "Gickel, Nickel, Pickel" by Ernst Heinrich Bethge The State library in Berlin has two interesting book titles from the same author. The first is Gickel, Nickel und Pickel, die drei Könige aus dem Lügenlande / Ein Reimspiel (1915) Gickel, Nickel and Pickel, three kings frome the land of lies-- a rhyme play). The other is Wir waren auch dabei ; Kriegs-Bühnenspiele f. d. Jugend (1916). We were there, too, war-theater plays for youth. Notice that all the major countries are present--except America. This was essentially how Germans saw the War. Few Germans, including the Kaiser and his military comamnders, thought it would be America that would play a major role in deciding the outcome of the War.

Most World I combatants gave little consideration to America. The United States had never participated in European wars and most expected this war to be over within a few months. And many Europeans were unaware as to how the growth of the American population industry had changed the world blance of power. The fact that the United States did not have a large armY was another factor leading to Europe ignoring America. There was one country which did not ignore the United States and that was the British. And important aspect of British policy from the onset was to bring America into the War. The Germans seriously under estimated the potential impact of American involvement and failed to recognize the full consequences of American entry into the War. The Kaiser was dismissive of the Americans. Bismarck had written years earlier that a major reality of geo-politics was that the growing American republic had linguistic and cultural ties to Britain. The Central Powers by 1917 had at great cost achieved many of their war aims. They had overrun Serbia and Romania. They had knocked Russia out of the war and achieved huge territorial gains in the Treaty of Brest Litovsk. They had largely neutralized the French Army which was no longer capable of offensive action. Final victory now only involved cracking the Western Front. And vuctory in the East provided the men and material to launch a massive new offensive. The German military pushed the Kaiser to approve a new expanded U-boat campaign to weaken Britain. The German generals were convinced that with the empending collapse of the Russian Eastern Front that they could force a decission on the Western Front before America could effectively intervene. Here Britian's calculation that American intervention could win the War for the Allies proved to be the correct assessment.

Transformation of America

America in the space of a century filled and developed much of the the North American continent. Creating a nation if enormous potential power. America in the 19th century grew from a lightly populated agricultural nation to a nation with a huge, modern industrial base. America's huge agriculture production was also of great importance. America had also become an increasingly important financial center. Never before in history has a nation grown from a small, minor country to a major world power in such short period of time. America at the outbreak of World War I had a larger population and industrial base than any of the European powers--even the major powers. American industry emerged as the most productive and efficent in the world. Immigration from Europe played a major role in building the American economy and population.

Significance

The population and economic power of the United States made it a major world power. Thus however the United States decided to move would probably decide the outcome of the War, especially after the Europeans had battered themselves nearly to exhaustion after 3 years of war.

American Military

The United States did not participate in European politics and did not enter into any alliance systems. This gave the United Srates the capability of building a massive military force, but except for the Civil war (1861-65), a tight-fisted Amerucan Congress refrained from massive military spending. The United States did build an importnant Navy, but the Army was minisule by European standards. America at the onset of World War I had a very small army. The Army had less than 110,000 men. This was the only the 17th largest in the world. American commanders had not managed large field armies since the Civil War. Nor was it equipped with modern weaponery. This meant for America to have any impact militarily, it had to both build an army and transport it to France. It was not at all clear how quickly Anerica could build an army or because of the U-boats if it could be safely transported to France.

British American Relationship

The most sugnificant factor in the history of thec20th century was the Anglo-American relationship. This is a relationship that has never been defined by formal treaty. And it is a relationship that few observers in the 19th century would have predicted. After the Revolutionary War (1776-83), America fought another war with Britain (1812-15). America and Britain in the 19th century were rivals and not countries seen as rivals. Another war with Britain threatened over the Oregon Territory (1840s). Both Britain and France came close to regignizing the Confederacy in the Civil War. And there was a threat of military action over Venezuela at the end of the century. Throughout the century there was a commercial rivalry. And there were immigrants hostile to Britain. The Scotts-Irish played a major role in Britain's loss in the Revolutionary War. The most hostile group were the Irish which arrived in the wake of the Potato Famine (1840s). But it was not just etnic groups that were hostile to Britain. Awide swath of Americans contunued to see Britain as America;s great rival. This can be see clearly in popular litrature such as Little Lord Fauntleroy (1885). And of course it was Britain through its Canadin colony that actually had a border with the United States, Another factor was the large German immigration to America. The Germans at the outbreak of the War were the largest immigrant group in America.

Outbreak of War (August 1914)

President Wilson at the outbreak of World War I in keeping with the country's tradition proclaimed American neutrality. Most World I combatants gave little consideration to America. The United States had never participated in European wars and most expected this war to be over within a few months. And many Europeans were unaware as to how the growth of the American population industry had changed the world balance of power. The fact that the United States did not have a large armY was another factor leading to Europe ignoring America.

British Calculation

The British discused the power of the rishing American Republic throughout the 19th century. Some dimissed America as a "mongrel nation". (Hitler would form the same opinion.) Some British authors believed that the ethnic diversity of America would prevent any findamental national spirit. Other British leaders watched with some trepedation the rise of American power, seeing a future rivalry. As late as the 1920s the British were concerned about a future naval war with America. There was one country which did not ignore the United States and that was the British. And important aspect of British policy from the onset was to bring America into the War.

British War Propaganda

British propaganda proved more effective than German propaganda. The German war propaganda lacked subtlety and was seen as strident by most Americans. The British, however, had important advatages. British propaganda was to play an important part in the Allied victory. The British had no propaganda office when the War began, but quickly created one. The War Propaganda Bureau was placed in the hands of Charles Masterman (September 1914). The British had two concens with one broke out. First, The British from the onset needed to influence domestic public opinion. This was more important in Britain than any other because Britain entered the War with only a small all-volunteer army. Thus Britons until 1916 had to be persuaded to volunteer. And the British public as the War progressed will apauling casualties had to be persuaded to continue the War. Second, the British needed to influence world opinion and here it was the United States that most concerned the British. This became increasingly important as the War progressed and neither the Allies or the Central Powers could break the deadlock on the Western Front. By 1917 with the virtual collaose of the French Army and the disolution of the Russian Army that Allied success would depend on America. Here the Germans had given the British a substantial advantage. However the Germans tried to explin it, the fact remained that the War began wjen they invaded Belgium--a neutral nation. And the brutal German occupation regime in Belgium gave the British material for their progand mill. Certainly the British blew iy up out of all proportions, but the Germans provided plenty of material for the British to work with. Had not America rushed food shipments to Belgium, there would have been mass starvation. The British had another important advantage, they controlled the Trans-Atlantic cabels, which meant they controlled the War news America received. Thus from a very early stage in the War, American sympathies were with the Allies. The German introduction of sunmarine warfare and poison gas only confirmed American attitudes toward the Germans and British propaganda made full use of both in their propaganda.

German Assessment

The Germans seriously under estimated the potential impact of American involvement and failed to recognize the full consequences of American entry into the War. The Kaiser was dismissive of the Americans. Bismarck had written years earlier that a major reality of geo-politics was that the growing American republic had linguistic and cultural ties to Britain. The German military, however, was entent on unleashing unrestricted submarine warfare. Military spokesmen dismissed the danger of American intervention. Admiral Capelle, German Secetary of State for the Navy, assured the Reichatag, "They will not even come because our submarines will sink them. Thus Ameica from a military point of view means nothing, and again nothing and for a third time nothing." (January 31, 1917) Kitchen, p. 123.]

Central Powers Poised for Victory (1917)

The Central Powers by 1917 had at great cost achieved many of their war aims. They had occupied and held on to most of Belgium as well as areas of northern France. They had overrun Serbia and Romania. They had knocked Russia out of the war and achieved huge territorial gains in the Treaty of Brest Litovsk. They had largely neutralized the French Army which was no longer capable of offensive action. Amd the Itlalians had been dealt a stunning defeat. Final victory now only invoved cracking the Western Front. And victory in the East had provided the men and material to launch a massive new offensive and achieve final victory.

German Policy toward America

German Unrestrictd Submarine Warfare (February 1917)

The German military pushed the Kaiser to approve a new expanded U-boat campaign to weaken Britain. Military commanders finally convinced Kaiser Wilhelm to resume unrestricted sunmarine warfare, despite the threat of war with America. The Germans seriously under estimated the potential impact of American involvement. The German generals were convinced that with the empending collapse of the Russian Eastern Front that they could force a decission on the Western Front before America could effectively intervene. Gambling that they could crack the Western Front, the military convinced Kaiser Wilhelm to resume unrestricted sunmarine warfare. This was the critical decission of the War and Kaiser Wilhelm made a catetrophic error. Here Britian's calculation that American intervention could win the War for the Allies proved to be the correct assessment. The unrestricted U-boat campaign gained Germany very little. In the end the British introduced the convoy system and the U-boat camapign failed. The declaration of unrestriucted submarine warfare, however, brought America into the War and it would be the American infantry that would blunt the German 1918 offensive and turn the tide on the Western Front. Without the arrival of the Americans, it is likely that the Germans would have won the war.

Americam Declaration of War (April 1917)

American President Woodrow Wilson camaigned for re-election in 1916 with the slogan "He kept us out of war". America at various points tried to negotiate an end to the War. Wilson in a 1917 speech called for a "peace without victory". None of the major European combatants showed much interest in the American efforts. The Britsh were still hopeful that America would join the Allies. Kaiser Wilhelm dimissed Wilson's efforts as unrealistic. The Germans seriously under estimated the potential impact of American involvement. Gambling that they could force a decission in the Western Front, the military convinced Kaiser Wilhelm to resume unrestricted sunmarine warfare. After German U-boats sank five American merchant vessels, President Wilson on asked Congress to Declare War on Germany which was approved April 6. President Wilson's motives are a subject of controversy among historians. The declaration of war was following the declaration of War an explosion of patriotic fervor not seen in America since the Civil war. Large numbers of young men enlisted. Many cities came close to fulfilling their quota within a few months, well before selective Service went into effect (June 5). There wee patriotic celebrations with children dressing up in uniforms and patriotic outfits. Along with the patriotic fervor. a wave of anti-German hysteria spread over America with the declaration of war on Germany. It was far worse than hate crimes against Arab-looking and turbaned individuals after Septenber 11, 2001.

German Western Offensive (March-June 1918)

The collapse of Russia in late 1917 and peace treaty forced upon the Bolsevicks in 1918 enabled the Germans to transfer powerful forces to the Wesern Front. The draconian demands on the Bolshecicks, however, delayed the signing of the peace treaty and the transfer of troops to the Western Front. The Russian Revolution occurred during the late Fall. The ensuing Winter of course meant that the Germans could not launch a major offensive until the Spring. By the time they were able to launch their offensive, a new American Army of over 1 million men awaited them in the Allied trenches. Even so, the Germand nearly succeeded. The French Army almot broke. Without the arrival of the Americans, it is likely that the Germans would have won the war. German General Ludendorff was to say after the War that it was the arrival of the American infantry that was the decisive factor on the Western Front.

Allied Hundred Days Campaign (August-November 1918)

After the German offensive failed, the Allied bolstered with an American army of over 1 million fresh soldiers launched the Meuse-Argon offensive against the much vaunted Hindenberg Line. The German Westernt Front cracked. Pershing planned a massive new offensive for November 14, but it never occurred. Germany sued for peace and an Armistace agreed to on November 11. The Americans held 16 miles more of the front than the British when the armistace was declared. German General Ludendorff was to say after the War that it was the arrival of the American infantry that was the decisive factor on the Western Front. Given the importance of American units in World War I, it is astonishing that a German leader at war ith Brith and the Soviet Union in World war II would declare war on the United States.

Sources

Kitchen, M. The Silent Dictatorship (London, 1976).

Created: 12:00 AM 11/5/2007
Last updated: 12:00 AM 11/5/2007