Figure 1.-- This is the 'USS George Washington' (ID-3018) sailing into New York harbor for another load of doughboys (1918). The ship was a German flagship oceanliner launched in Bremen (1908). It had been built for luxury more than speed, but was still faster than most merchantmen and most importntly U-bots. It had radioed a warning about a large iceberg in the North Atlantic shipping lanes, probably the one that sank 'Titanic' (1912). The United States interned it at the outbreak of World War I (1914). It sat unused for 3 years until the U.S. Navy seized it days after the declaration of War (1917). It carried the first American troops to France (December 1917). In all it carried 48,000 men to France and 34,000 back home. It also carried Presiden Wilson to France for the Paris Peace Conference (1919).

After conscripting an army and beginning training, the next step was getting the men safely to France. The Army made the decission to begin transporting before the men were trained. Unlike European countries, there was no large body of men with military traiing available. It was decided that training could be conducted in France. The German Kreiegs Marine (KM) was convinced that their U-boats could prevent the AEF from reaching France. They assured the Government and Kaiser that they could not only sink some troop transports, but essentially prevent the AEF from reaching France. It was on that basis that the Kaiser decided to resume unrestricted submarime warfare bringing America into the War. This proved to be a disterous miscalculation and mazingly another German leader would repeat a little over two decades later. Not just any ship could be used for transporting troops. They had to be fast transports, not slow merchantmen. Getting through the U-boats, however, once the ships were found proved to be a fairly simple matter. Fast ships like oceanliners were faster than the U-boats. Such transports were at first reltively scarce. The U.S. Navy did not have many such ships. The U.S. Army pressed into service a variety of ships for the purpose. They used oceanliners, seized German ships, and borrowed Allied ships. The ships sailed from New York, New Jersey ports, and Newport News, Virginia. It was a major effort to transport a million-man large army. The problem was eased somewhat in that the Allies were to provide much of the AEF's equioment. The United tates did not have a large arms industry and it would take some time to gear up for war production. In sharp contrast to what the KM promissed, the U-boats did not sink a single American troop transport laden with troops. They did sink two transports returning empty. They AEF was landed primarily at Bordeaux, La Pallice, Saint Nazaire and Brest. From their the efficent French railway system which brought the American forces to training and assembly areas and eventually the Front. American engineers significantly expanded the French infrastructure for this effort. This inckuded 82 new ship berths, almost 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of additional rail lines, and 100,000 miles (160,000 km) of telephone and telegraph lines. [Coffman]

Creating the AEF

The war exhausted Allies were elated with the American declaration of war. Few Europeans who maintained large standing armies understood that America did not have an army in being to commit to battle. Declaring war was one thing, creating an army was a very different matter that would take time, time that the hard pressed Allies could scarsely afford. The outcome of the War would hinge on whether the Germans could shift forces west from Russia for a final massive offensive faster than the Americans could form and transport an army to France. The Kreigsmarine had assured the Reichstag that American troopshops could never get through the U-boat screen. General Pershing and a small staff were dispatched to France, but it would be many months before an American Army of any size could be trained and transported to France. The European countries that went to War (except Britain) had large well-armed, conscript forces that could be committed to battle in a short period of time. The United States did not. Camps were opened all over the country. The South was a preferred location because of the warmer weather. Trainuing was complocated in a snow drift. Given the size of the army American was to build. Many new camps wwre set up and opened. Baracks began going up, but this took time. In many camps tents had to be used because there were no barrcks. Some men were shipped to France without training, to be trained by Pershing in France. Men volunteered for service. This included men of all social classes, including young men from the elite. Some 11,000 men from virtually every Harvard class (1887-1921), for example, served in the War, many as volunteers. The motivation was patriotism. [Nelson] It soon became evident, however, that a draft would be needed to build the massive army that would be needed to to have an impact on the Western Front. Fighting the Germans was not like the war with Spain. A massive well-equipped and trained army would be needed. Congress enacted only the second draft in American history. The lack of a conscription law had been one of the attractions that brought immigrants to America. The Germans had, however, managed to significantly shift American public opinion. Against all odds, the Germans had managed to turn a country desiring to stay out of the War and with immigrant groups even more strongly opposed to war into an enraged enemy that would turn the tide on the Westen Front. Amazingly even conscription did not prove an impediment because of incredibly obtuse German actions. German mishandling of its relationship with America was even more starteling because America had a huge German mimority opposed to war, as well as a large Irish minority hostile to the British. Unlike the British, hoever, the Germans just could not envision America as a potentially important player im the War.

Kriegs Marine Guarantee

After conscripting an army and beginning training, the next step was getting the men safely to France. German Krirgs Marine commanders resented the passivity forced upon them by the Kaiser's decesion to suspend inrestricted submarine warfare (1915). It had been forced upon him by President Wilson's demands. They continued to promote a more aggressive submarine campaign. They convinced Arny commanders who saw the steady attrition and victory gradually skipping away from them. Eventually they convinced Kaiser Wilhelm. The Crown Prince was a strong proponent and argued that the U-boat should be an important component of German war oprations. The Gobernment was more skeptical. Going over to the defensive on the Western Front in 1917, the Army High Command endorsed the KM's belief that unrestricted U-boat warfare against the British at sea could result in a German victory within the year. Army and Naval commanders in a joint audience with the Kaiser Presented their military assessment arguments to the Kaiser (January 8, 1917). The Kaiser decided to approve resuming unrestricted submarine warfare. The German chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, was invitdto the meeting because he was known to fear American involvement in the War. And by this time, the Army High Command were largely running Germany. Bethmann Hollweg had no choice, but to accept the Kaiser’s decision. He was pressured by theKaiser, the military, and an increasingly hungry German public having no problem with more aggressive German action. Naval commanders guaranteed the Govrnment that they did not need to fear America involvement. The United states did noy have a large army Which was accurate) and it would take a long time to recruit and train an army (which was also true). And at any rate, the U-boats could prevent any American Army from reaching France. This was a military assesment. The Kaiser should have remembered how his Army commanders had guaranteedvhim a quick victory in 1914. Another factor was that the Germans including the Kaiser looked on the Americans very differntly than the British. For the Germans a country without a core national ethnic population was not a real country capable of building a powerful army. Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg went before the German Reichstag (January 31, 1917) and announced that unrestricted submarine warfare would resume the next day. It was simply announced. There was no vote. He tod the Reichstag that, "The destructive designs of our opponents cannot be expressed more strongly. We have been challenged to fight to the end. We accept the challenge. We stake everything, and we shall be victorious." The KM was convinced that their U-boats could prevent any AEF from reaching France. They assured the Government and Kaiser that once unrestructed submarine warfare was resumed, the U-boat force could not only sink some troop transports, but essentilly prevent the AEF from reaching France. It was on that basis that the Kaiser decided to resume unrestricted submarime warfare bringing America into the War. This proved to be a disterous miscalculation and amazingly another German leader would repeat a little over two decades later.

Declaration of War

American President Woodrow Wilson camaigned for re-election in 1916 with the slogan "He kept us out of war". America at various points tried to negotiate an end to the War. Wilson in a 1917 speech called for a "peace without victory". None of the major European combatants showed much interest in the American efforts. The Britsh were still hopeful that America would join the Allies. Kaiser Wilhelm dimissed Wilson's efforts as unrealistic. The Germans seriously under estimated the potential impact of American involvement. Gambling that they could force a decission in the Western Front, the military convinced Kaiser Wilhelm to resume unrestricted sunmarine warfare. After German U-boats sank five American merchant vessels, President Wilson asked Congress to Declare War on Germany which was approved April 6. President Wilson's motives are a subject of controversy among historians. The declaration of war was following the declaration of War an explosion of patriotic fervor not seen in America since the Civil war. Large numbers of young men enlisted. Many cities came close to fulfilling their quota within a few months, well before selective Service went into effect (June 5). There were patriotic celebrations with children dressing up in uniforms and patriotic outfits. Along with the patriotic fervor. a wave of anti-German hysteria spread over America with the declaration of war on Germany. It was far worse than hate crimes against Arab-looking and turbaned individuals after Septenber 11, 2001.

The Transports

Not just any ship could be used for transporting troops. They had to be fast transports, not slow merchantmen. Getting through the U-boats, however, once the ships were found proved to be a fairly simple matter. Fast ships like oceanliners were faster than the U-boats. Such transports were at first reltively scarce. The U.S. Navy did not have such ships. Unlike the Army, the U.S. Navy was a substabtiak=l forcde, but its mission was to protect thevhomeland, notvwage a war in Europe. Thus it was never pat of its perceived mission to carry millions of soldiers to Europe. The U.S. Navy pressed into service a variety of ships for the purpose. They used oceanliners, seized German ships, and borrowed Allied ships. A substantial portion of the American transports consisted of seized German ships, which were brought into service in Fall 1917 (figure 1). There were also neutral shipping (Dutchand Scandinavian dhips as well as Japanese ships in the trabsport fleet. Almost one million tons of new ships were launched by the Emergency Fleet Corporation. This was nothing like the World War II Liberty Ship coinstruction, but it was substantial. Over half the AEF was transported in British transports and small numbers in French, Iralian, and Russian ships.

Ports

The ships sailed from New York, New Jersey ports, and Newport News, Virginia. Hoboken and Brooklyn were the most important. Some men sailed from Canadian ports.

The Task

It was a major effort to transport a million-man large army. This was the combat force that helped win the War. Another million men had been transportd and were undergoing training in France. Another two million men were in America awaiting transport when the Germans asked for an armistice. The transport problem was eased somewhat in that the Allies were to provide much of the equipment used by the AEF. The United tates did not have a large arms industry and it would take some time to gear up for war production.

Results

The American reaction to resuming undeclared submarine warfare was a declaration of War (April 1917). Only America had no way of making war at the time. It did not have a sizeable army and of course what America had was in the United States. The U.S. Navy and Royal Navy successfully transported more than 2 million American soldiers and 7.5 million tons of cargo to France during the 19 months that the United States was involved in World War I. At first there were only small numbers but by September 1917 transports exceeded 50,000 men and by October 1917 over 100,000 men. Most of these men were raw recruits. And the numbers steadily increased. Over 800,000 men arrived in October 1918. And the massive numbers would have continud to arrive had not the Germans surrendered that month. The AEF fighting force in the Hundred Days Campaign anounted to some 1 million mem. Another 1 million men were training in France. And even larger numbers training in America preparing for transport to France. In sharp contrast to what the KM admirals had promissed, the U-boats did not sink a single American troop transport laden with troops. It was total failure in sharp contrast to what the KM had promissed. The U-boats did manage to sink two transports returning empty.

France

They AEF was landed primarily at Bordeaux, La Pallice, Saint Nazaire and Brest. Many men were landed in Britain and transportd on to France. By far the most imoortant was Liverpool. Nearly 850,000 men were labnded in Liverpool. (e are not sure if that number included the Canadians. rom the French ports, the efficent French railway system which brought the American forces to training and assembly areas and eventually the Front. American engineers significantly expanded the French infrastructure for this effort. This inckuded 82 new ship berths, almost 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of additional rail lines, and 100,000 miles (160,000 km) of telephone and telegraph lines. [Coffman]

Training

The Army made the decission to begin transporting before the men were trained. It was thought important that th AEF make an appearance in France, trained or not. Unlike European countries, there was no large body of men with military traiing available. It was decided that some of the training could be conducted in France. Gen. John J. Pershing, the AEF commander arrived in Paris (June 1917), two months after the United States entered the war, but without an army to command. Troops of the American 1st Division began debarking at St. Nazaire by the end of the month. The French cheered. The first men arriving were enthusiatic, but totally untrined. A Capt. George Marshall, who would lead the U.S, Army in World War II, was among them. He recalled that they 'hadn’t even been trained in squads left and squads right'. French Army commanders were horrified. Many had expected a trained army ready to fight.

Bringing the Boys Home

The United States when World War I broke out in Europe did not have asizable army. The prrofessional U.S. Army was a fraction of the size of a European Army. There was a militia which became the Narional Guard (1916). But it was poorly equipped and largly untrained. The Germans did not take the United States as a serious power, believing that the Americans could not rapidly create, arm, and train an army or transport it to France. That was why the Kaiser decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare (February 1917). The Germany Navy assured him that the U-boats could sink troopships if the Americans tried to send an an army to France. This proved to be an illusion. After declaring War (April 1917). The United Sttes began an enormous effort to create the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) and tranport the men to France. Most of the AEF was shipped without much training or equipment and were traind and equipped in France. This effort continued until the armistice (November 1918). At that time the United States was still preparing to send another 1 million men to France and had just begun to shift American industry over to war production. The German Army began collapsing with only the appearance of 1 million American troops on the western Front. It is not difficult to see what another 1 million men with the Front broken would have meant in addition to the huge potential American industrial production. With the Armistice and the cesation of hostilities, the United States faced a huge logistical problem in reserse. The American Doughboys now had to be brought home. Not only did the men want to come home right away, but thee was enormous political pressure back home to do so. This would, however, take some time just as it had taken time to get them to France. And there were military concerns as well. American troops thus remained in Europe for some time as the demobilization process began.

Sources

Ayres, Leonard P. War with Germany: A Statistical Summary (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1919).

Coffman, Edward M. The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I (1998).

Created: 3:02 AM 11/5/2007
Last updated: 3:02 AM 11/5/2007