** World War I -- American mobilization








World War I: American Mobilization (1917)


Figure 1.--America declared war on Germany (April 1917). Because there had been virtually no preparation, the Government had to ininiate steps to mobilize for war. Three months after the declaration of war on Germany, America celebrated the annual4th of July Independence Day. This parade was down the main street of Aurora, Illinois, deep in previously anti-war Midwest. Notice the newky formed Boy Scouts. After the War the recriminations would come, but during the War there was tremendous support for the War. Enormous efforts were underway to gear up fgor the War and there was very little public opposition.

America for 3 years reveled in its moral superiority, staying out of the European war. There was no great public demand for involvement. Most Americans wanted no part of the War, a sentiment that was particularly strong in the geavily German populated Mid-West. Only incredibly reckless German policy managed to bring America into the War, arguably the greates miscalculation in German history. Unlike Europe, however, American had no reserve force to quickly mobilize. The British and French expected that with the declaration of war, a huge American Army would immediately arrive in France. This was not possible because there was no such army. General Pershing and a small staff was dispatched to France, but it would be many months before an American Army could be trained and shipped to France. Baracks went up all over the country. Some men were shipped to France without training, to be trained by Pershing in France. Men volunteered for service, but it soon became evident that a draft would be needed to build a massive army that would be needed to to have an impact on the Western Front. The Congress enacted only the second draft in American history. The lack of a conscription law had been one of the attractions that brought immigrants to America. The Germans had managed to significantly shift American public opinion. The draft was just one aspect of mobilization. The Federal Government assumed enormous power, unprecedented in American history to convert the economy for war. And in the patriotic explosion that followed the declaration of war, few questioned the measures taken to prosecute the War. Not only did America not have an army to send to France, but American industry had to be converted to war production. Steps were made to shift production to arms, but American soldiers would fight the war with mostly British and French arms.

Preparadness

Unlike Europe, however, American had no reserve force to quickly mobilize. The British and French expected that with the declaration of war, a huge American Army would immediately arrive in France. This was not possible because there was no such army. The only American military force of any real importance thst already existed was the U.S. Navy. Nor had any administrative steps or even planning boards been created been taken by the Federal Government to prepare for war. Especially critical would be the economy, both industry and agriculture. But there was no preparation for shifting the economy to support the war effort. The most important development preparing America fir the War was orders from the Allies. Theoretically the Germans could have placed orders, but Royal Navy control of the Sea made deliveries to German impossible. European war orders increased rapidly from the pre-War 1911-14 annual level ($2.1 billion to $2.6 billion). Exports by 1916 had more than doubled ($5.7 billion). All of this was increased indusyrial and agricultural production that would assist the Allied war effort. There were some limited administrarive steps. The Federal Government set up the the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the U.S. Shipping Board, and the Council of National Defense with an advisory commission, all before 1917. Political considerations precluded more substantial steps. President Woodrow Wilson pursued a policy of neutrality which was popular with the American people. Major iniitiar\tives would have abngered the influential pacifist sentiment in Congress and the general mpublic. One might think that quiet planning might have been waranted, but there was always the possibility that suchvsteps could have leaked out.

America Declares War (April 1917)

America for 3 years reveled in its moral superiority, staying out of the European war. There was no great public demand for involvement. Most Americans wanted no part of the War, a sentiment that was particularly strong in the geavily German populated Mid-West. American President Woodrow Wilson camaigned for re-election in 1916 with the slogan "He kept us out of war". America at various points tried to negotiate an end to the War. Wilson in a 1917 speech called for a "peace without victory". None of the major European combatants showed much interest in the American efforts. The Britsh were still hopeful that America would join the Allies. Kaiser Wilhelm dimissed Wilson's efforts as unrealistic. Only incredibly reckless German policy managed to bring America into the War, arguably the greates miscalculation in German history. President Wilson after the German resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare asked the Congress for a dedclaration of war which Congress passed (April 6).

Building the U.S. Army

The war exhausted Allies were elated with the American declaration of war. Few Europeans who maintained large standing armies understood that America did not have an army in being to commit to battle. Declaring war was one thing, creating an army was a very different matter that would take time, time that the hard pressed Allies could scarsely afford. The outcome of the War would hinge on whether the Germans could shift forces west from Russia for a final massive offensive faster than the Americans could form and transport an army to France. The Kreigsmarine had assured the Reichstag that American troopshops could never get through the U-boat screen. General Pershing and a small staff were dispatched to France, but it would be many months before an American Army of any size could be trained and transported to France. The European countries that went to War (except Britain) had large well-armed, conscript forces that could be committed to battle in a short period of time. The United States did not. Camps were opened and baracks went up all over the country. In some camps tents had to be used because there were no barrcks. Some men were shipped to France without training, to be trained by Pershing in France. Men volunteered for service. This included men of all social classes, including young men from the elite. Some 11,000 men from virtually every Harvard class (1887-1921), for example, served in the War, many as volunteers. The motivation was patriotism. [Nelson] It soon became evident, however, that a draft would be needed to build the massive army that would be needed to to have an impact on the Western Front. Fighting the Germans was not like the war with Spain. A massive well-equipped and trained army would be needed. Congress enacted only the second draft in American history. The lack of a conscription law had been one of the attractions that brought immigrants to America. The Germans had, however, managed to significantly shift American public opinion. Against all odds, the Germans had managed to turn a country desiring to stay out of the War and with immigrant groups even more strongly opposed to war into an enraged enemy that would turn the tide on the Westen Front. Amazingly even conscription did not prove an impediment because of incredibly obtuse German actions. German mishandling of its relationship with America was even more starteling because America had a huge German mimority opposed to war, as well as a large Irish minority hostile to the British. Unlike the British, hoever, the Germans just could noy envision America as a potentially important player im the War.

American Expeditionary Force (AEF)

When Pershing arrived in France, the French were shocked. They had expected a large American Army. Pershing did not bring an army with him because there was no such army. The French were stunned that a country the size of the United States would have such a pitifully small army. The Allies made it very clear that what was needed was men, A large America Army was critically needed. America as late as Spring 1917 only had a small volunteer force. The United States would have to recruit, train, and equip its army and this would take some time. The Germans knew this and gambled that the U-boat campaign and their massive Spring 1918 offensive would win the War before the Americans could intervene in force. Pershing reached France with only a smll staff. For months only a small trickle of troops followed. There were, however, American troops in France by the time the Germans launched their vaunted Sring 1918 Offensive and the AEF had reached 0.5 million (May 1918). The arrival of the Americans was critical. They played an important role in stopping the Germans. The Germans almost succeeded in breaking the Allies Western Front. Thus the AEF while still relatively small, was crucial. Pershing respponding to the urgent pleas from the Allies committed available U.S. units to help the French hold the Western Front. U.S. troops fought at Aisne Offensive (May 1918) and on the Marne (June 1918). Pershing insisted that the AEF, however, be deployed as an army and not piecemeal within British and French armies. Significant numbers of American soldiers did not begin to arrive in France until the summer of 1918. At that time about 10,000 Americans arrived daily, unimpeded by the U-boats. And by Summer 1918 American soldiers were arriving in large numbers. As the Allies after stopping the Germans began to think about their offensive, the AEF had begun to reach sizeable numbers, over a million men (July 1918). Pershing launched the first AEF offensive at St Mihiel (September) and Meuse-Argonne (October). The United States sent over 2 million men to Europe, mostly to France. And more were being trained in America had they been needed. Many of the men who reached France were never committed because the Germans requested an armistice before they were needed. The AEF sustained 264,000 casualties which including nearly 51,000 killed in action and an additional 25,000 who died as a result of disease. About 10 percent of the AEF were segregated black units. They were mostly used in non-combat roles. About 40,000 were trained as combat soldies. They were assigned to fight with French units.

The Economy

The draft was just one aspect of mobilization. The Federal Government assumed enormous power, unprecedented in American history to convert the economy for war. And in the patriotic explosion that followed the declaration of war, few questioned the measures taken to prosecute the War. Not only did America not have an army to send to France, but American industry had to be converted to war production. Steps were made to shift production to arms, but American soldiers would fight the war with mostly British and French arms. The Wilson Administration did not immediately launch a major government effort to mobilize the economy. As there had been no pre-War planning, it was not generally known just what was necessary. The initial steps were mostly private. Volunteer committees spring up all over the country. Corporated executives tried to design efforts to expand the production of needed supplies abd equipment and rearrange train and other transport schedules. Price waa another matter to be considered. By the late summer it was clear that the planning was beyond the capability of private industry. Government action was delayed by differences between the President and Congress over economic policies and Federal administrative controls. The military was forced to compete for supplies abd equipment is a still largely free market economy. America's substantial output was already mostly contracted to both private purchasers as well as overseas Allied purchasers. Here steel and coal was of special importance. Corporations selling consumer products were in many vases not interested in costly retooling and shifting to war production, believing that the War would soon be over. The Administration's first major steps was 1) to increased the authority of the U.S. Shipping Board and 2) to established the War Industries Board (WIB). Shipping was vital to get American supplies to the Allies and to prepare for transportung the AEF to France. The WIB was one of the greatest expansions in the power of the Federal Government in American history. The WIM was set up to regulate business-government relations. Congress authorized the President to control food and fuel supplies and to fix a minimum price for wheat (August 10, 1917). This proved to be just the beginning. More requests came from the White House which Congress approved with some reluctance. Major iniitiatives were the War Trade Board, the Alien Property Custodian, and the Aircraft Board (October 1917). The Wilson Administration also began fixing prices, at first on industrial raw materials. The Allies braced for an expected German offensive (winter 1917-18). The Allies pleaded for increased American shipments of munitions and other supplies which meant more shipping was needed. Conscription and cwar lossesses was affecting Allied production of both war materials and food, creating more need for American supplies. There were also transportation breakdowns. The Wilso Admionistration responded with increasingly stringent controls over private industry. In addition to what the Allies needed, America was building a huge army which had to be equipped and supplied. The requirements were enormous.

Public Opinion

President Wilson upon the outbreak of World War I declared the United states neutral (1914). His policy of neutrality was enormously popular with the American people. It probably was the deciding factor in his reelection (1916). It was especially popular with German and Irish Americans. The Irish were strong Democratic supporters. The Germans were a major constituency in the Midwest which often determined the outcome of American elections. With the Germans it was probably more of an anti-War sentiment than a pro-German bias. Public opinion gradually shifted toward the Allies as a result of British propaganda, German policies in occupied Belgium, and incidents such as the xsinking of the RMS Lusitania. Even so the vast majority of Americans, especially the progressives, opposed American entry into the War. They also made any Administration efforts to strengthen the military difficult. The United States pursued a more friendly relationship with Great Britain and France than with Germany or Austria-Hungary, but Wilson�s administration maintained a strictly neutral stance. The President made diplomatic initiatives aimed at ending the War that suggested generous terms to the Germans. The Kaiser and his Government, were, however basically dimissive and internt on a military victory. In the end it was incredably misguided German policy that brought America into the War. The Germans believed that America was not all that important and that they could win the War before America could mobilize and send an army to France. The German Navy even assured the Reichstag that the U-boats would even prevent an American Army from crossing the Atlantic. The Kaiser's decesion to resume unrestricted submarine warfare (February 1917). And if that was not bad enough, the Zimmermann Telegram enfuriated the public. This finally decided the issue. The German actions unleashed a flood of anti-German sentiment and nationalist fervor. It galvanized public opinion which came to support entering the War. The United States declared War (April 6, 1917). Despite what had been strong anti-War sentiment, both the Senate and House overwhelmingly voted to declare war. The American public fervently embraced the War once it was declared. There was very little descent or misgivings. Americans ariund the country, including the Midwest, pitched uin to support the war effort. And Congress moved tosupress even the limited opposition. There was a deplorable outburst of anti-German violence. President Wilson was concerned about public support for the war because the pacifist feeling had been so pronounced. Shortly after the declaration of War, he created Wilson created the Committee on Public Information (CPI) (April 13). The new agency was assigned with with the twin tasks of promoting the War domestically while publicizing American war aims overseas. Muckraking journalist George Creel was put in charge of the CPI. He recruited staff from business, media, academia, and the art world. Many Ameicans began having second thoughts about the War, even before it ended (November 1918). The principal reasons were the casuakties the AEF experienced in France. American war losses were small by European standards. But this was only because America entered the War several yearsafter the other combatants and the AEF was only committed for about 6 months of battle. During those 6 months, however, American casualties were as high as experienced by other combatant countries, especially because the AEF was engaged in largely pitched offensive operations.

War Propaganda


Civilian Voluteer Efforts


Sources

Beaver, Daniel R. Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917�1919 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966).

Cuff, Robert D. The War Industries Board: Business-Government Relations During World War I (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973).

Nelson, James Carl. Five Lieutenants: The Hertbreakung Story of Five Harvard Men Who led America to Victoryin WWI (2012), 384p. Nelson delves into the motivations of five young officers as wll as their experiences and fates.

Urofsky, Melvin I. Big Steel and the Wilson Administration: A Study in Business-Government Relations (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1969).







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Created: 9:35 AM 2/10/2011
Last updated: 10:35 AM 12/19/2017