Figure 1.--Most of Poland was seized by Tsarist Russia in three partitions (18th century). After the Germans drove the Tsarists armies from East Prussia in two shattering victories (1914), the fighting moved to Poland (1915). This is a Polish refugee family. Many of the vast number of Russian Empire refugees were non-Russian ethnic groups inhabiting the western provinces of the Tsarist Empire, including Balts, Poles, Jews (largely prohibited from the Russian lands), Bylorussians, and Ukranians.

At the same time the Germans struck at France, the Russians in the East honoring their treaty with France (1914). Attacked in East Prussia. The Germans gained, however, a great victory. Fighting would, however, go on for 3 years, at first mostly in what is now Poland, but eventully spreading into the Baltics and Ukraine. The world focus on the Western Front. Fighting on the Eastern Front received much less coverage, but vast armies battled it out and unlike the West was not confined to a narrow line of trenches. This meant that civilans were even more affected than in the west as well as food production. The refugee problem may have been greater than in the West. Some estimates place the number of refugees in the former Russian Empire at some 6 million people--although no one really knows. Russian food production plummeted. And these refugees received much less outsie aid because it was very difficult getting American food aid into Russia and the Central Powers had little food to spare fir th areas they occupied. The popuation became desperate in towns and cities across the western areas of the Tsarist Empire. Refugees poured into urban areas, mostly areas just behind the front. At first there was a hope that the War would soon be over and they could soon return to their homes. It soon became obvious that this would not be possible. The Germans gained substantil victories over the Tsarist armies which withdrew from Galicia. Civilians in their thousands fled into to L�vov and adjacent towns. Many simply fled the Germans, without any preparations or food supplies. The refugee crisis had both economic and political consequences. Non-Russian minorities (Poles, Latvians, Lithuanians, Ukrainians and Jews) were disproportionately concentrated in the western borderlands where the Eastern Front fighting took place. Not only did serious food shorthes develop, but Tsarist military commanders exhibiting traditionl Russian paranonia of foreigners, actually accussing these desperate people of aiding and abetting the invaders. There was a large number of Jewish refugees. Russian authorities were especially hostile to Jews. Spome had even been involvd in pre-War pograms. There were deportations to the Russian interior. For the most part, the suspions were untrue. That said, there was a significant yearing for independdence in the western borderlnds. And many were uncertin who to support. Many thought that there might be better opportunity for a degree of autonomy from the Germans. Only slowly as the war progressed did many begin to see a real opportunity for independence.

World War I

At the same time the Germans struck at Belgium and France in the West, the Russians in the East honoring their treaty with France mobilized much faster than the Germns nbticipted. They attacked into East Prussia. The Germans gained, however, a great victory. They then invaded Poland, at the time arovince of the Tsarist Empire. Fighting would, however, go on for 3 years, at first mostly in what is now Poland, but eventully spreading into the Baltics and Ukraine. The world focus on the Western Front. Fighting on the Eastern Front received much less coverage, but vast armies battled it out and unlike the West was not confined to a narrow line of trenches. German and to a lesser extent Austrian advances created millions of refugees in the western areas of the Tsarist Empire.

Tsarist Controlled Areas

This meant that civilans on the Eastern Front were even more affected than on the Western Front as well as well as food production. The refugee problem was even greater than in the West. Some estimates place the number of refugees in the former Russian Empire at some 6 million people--although no one really knows. Russian food production plummeted. And these refugees received much less outsie aid because it was very difficult getting American food aid into Russia and the Central Powers had little food to spare fir th areas they occupied. The popuation became desperate in towns and cities across the western areas of the Tsarist Empire. Refugees poured into urban areas, mostly areas just behind the front. At first there was a hope that the War would soon be over and they could soon return to their homes. It soon became obvious that this would not be possible. The Germans gained substantil victories over the Tsarist armies which withdrew from Galicia. Civilians in their thousands fled into to Lvov L'viv and adjacent towns. Many simply fled the Germans, without any preparations or food supplies. Setting out away from the advancing armies without having any real destination inmind. Most moved on foot. Tsarist officials directed refugees to specific destinations by rail or on the waterways if possible, but the military primarily controlled the railways and used them for their own purposes. Towns and cities throughout the western areas of the Tsarist Empire were transformed. As the Germans pressed forward, refugees came to reach a quarter of the population im many areas. Municipal authorities attempted to evcuate the refugees further east. And as food stocks began to un out, the initial sympathy for the refugees began to disappeasr, especially as it became clear that the refugeees increased in number and had no way of pay for accommodation, food, and other needed supplies. And terrible food shortages for the entire population devloped. The refugees thus suffered immense hardship. There were aid efforts organized. Both private organisations and local self-government bodies (zemstvos) attemotd to aid the refugees. Refugees also formed their own relief committees, commonly long national lines. The need was, however, overwealming, beyond he capabilities of private organizations. ==== some 25 percent of the population might be refugees. They often had faced extremne hardships treking from the front-line areas with many dieing along the way. Local authorities tried to find emrgency shelter in whatever buidings could be found. This included railway stations, schools, empty factories, breweries, hotels, bathhouses, army barracks, monasteries, synagogues, theatres, cinemas, cafes, and even prisons. They attempted to evacuate the refugees further east. The initial sympathy and hospitality quickly disappeared as refugees kept coming and the reality of the situation settled in. Authorities began viewing the refuggees as an aliennplgue as dangerous as the Germans. Authorities began to fear disorders and riots. [Purseigle, p.41.] There were some who exploited the refugees. Many more began demonizing them. [Gatrell, p. 200.]

Ethnic Issues

The refugee crisis had both economic and political consequences. Non-Russian minorities (Poles, Latvians, Lithuanians, Ukrainians and Jews) were disproportionately concentrated in the western borderlands where the Eastern Front fighting took place. Not only did serious food shorthes develop, but Tsarist military commanders exhibiting traditionl Russian paranonia of foreigners, actually accussing these desperate people of aiding and abetting the invaders. There was a large number of Jewish refugees. Russian authorities were especially hostile to Jews. Spome had even been involvd in pre-War pograms. There were deportations to the Russian interior. For the most part, the suspions were untrue. That said, there was a significant yearing for independdence in the western borderlnds. And many were uncertin who to support. Many thought that there might be better opportunity for a degree of autonomy from the Germans. Only slowly as the war progressed did many begin to see a real opportunity for independence. The massive displacement of non-Russian national/ethnic minorities in the western areas of the Tsarist Empire and the weakening of state control meant that nationalist leaders an opportunity to promote nationlist ideas because the Okhrana, the Tsarist secret police, was able to exert less an less control. The various minorities began to see autinimy nd than indepoendence as aeal possibility. The Polish Committee for the Relief of War Victims was especially importnt. One organizer explained, "Only continuous and close contact with the national group can guarantee and secure refugees on behalf of the motherland." [Gatrell, p. 156.] The refugee crisis thus contributed to the emergence an independent Poland, Latvia, and Lithuania after the War. The War also resulted in an independent Estonia and Finland, although here the refugee cisis was less important.

Jews

Jews were a special issue in the Russian Empire. Jews for the most part were restricted to the Pale of Settlement in the West. The emergency of the War and massive physical displacement had powerful social and and political consequences for Jews in the Tsarist Empire. It was a harrowing time, but it led essentilly to libration from extensive pre-War restrictions. Tsarist officials were forced to recognise that maintaining the Pale of Settlement. was no longer possible. The need to defeat the German invaders had to be the highest priority. The administrative resources needed to maintain the Pale of Settlent and controling the Empire's Jews were no longer available. The rather liberal-minded Minister of Agriculture A. V. Krivoshein (1858-1923) explained, " ... one cannot fight a war against Germany and against the Jews." Jews continued to experience harassment and abuse by the Tsarist Army. But the movement of refugees, including Jews, could not be controlled Tsarist offivils. As a result the the Pale of Settlement simply dissolved under German pressure. The Tsarist Govrnment was not happy about this, but had to concede that, 'Jewish war sufferers' should be permitted to settle in provincial towns beyond the Pale. But they still refused to permot Jews to seek rfuge in Petrograd or Moscow. Tsarist officials also attempted to prmit Jews to settle in villages. spite the crestrictions, Jews appeared in large areas of Russiahere they had never been lloweed bedore. An estimted 40 percent of Jewish refugees enter areas of the Empire that Jews had not been allowed before. Many Russians found their presence unsettling. The strong strain of anti-Semitism perpetrated by the Orthodox Church was a fctor. Yiddish was anothr fctor. Many thought it was German. in public places led some Russians to think that German was being spoken, and this compounded the fear of Jewish cultural difference. [Gatrell, p. 156.]

Morale

The Tsarist Empire almost collapsed as a result of the failed Russo-Japanese War (1905-06). The losses, destruction, didplscement, and food shortages of tghat distant war were only a small fraction of what occurred in Wotrld War I. Some how the Tsarist regime held up unfer far greater stress. But slowly the bad news, losses and drepredations began to take its toll. The refugee crisis was one of the many consequences that impacted public opinion and addiutudtes toward the Government. As the War progressed, newspapers became nore and nore critical. Direct criticism of the Tsar was not allowed, but criticism of the Governmrnt was. The papers began describing the refugee cridsis as a 'state traged. Other terms begn to be used like a .social catastrophe'. As the situation worsened, we see terms lining it to as aiblical flood, 'human torrent', 'wave', and 'deluge'. Other disaster terms were used ('avalanche', volcanic 'lava'). One journlist used other Biblicl alusions, describing fertile land being laid waste by 'hordes of locusts'. [Gatrell, p. 200.] And criticism of the Government intensified. Critics added failure to handle the refugee crisis to the inability to stop the German advance. Government officials fomd them selves in a conflict with and civic leaders.. And the cumultive impact of these and oyther failures, especilly foof shortages would be factors in the eventual collapse of the Tsarist regime (February 1917).

German Occupied Areas

After the German military success and occupation of Poland, refugees contitutes more than 10 percent of the population of major western cities and many towns. And in many cities the refugee population was even larger: Samara (30 percent), Ekaterinoslav and Pskov (25 percent)

The Revolution

The Revolution of 1905 following the disastrous Russo-Japanese War had shaken the Tsarist Empire to the core. Tsar Nicholas had been forced to grant a constitution. This created a duma or parliament. The Tsar was back in control (1907). The Tsarist state was irevocably weakened. The shooting of striking gold miners at the Lena field in Siberia resulted in a new wave of unrest (1912). Thus Tsarist Russia was in no condition to enter a general European war (1914). The War was a disaster for Russia. The country was unprepared and the result was huge casualties. Russia suffered more casualties than any other country. Dusruptions in the economy and the advance of German forces resulted in shortages including severe shortages and bread lines in the major cities. As a result, the Tsarist Government collapsed with relatively little resistance when riots broke out in St. Persburg. Army revolts forced the Tsar to abdicate. Nicholas II abdicated on March 2, 1917, in favor of his brother Michael. No fool, Michael renounced his claim the next day. The abdication of the Tsar left the Duma in control of Russia. The Duma was dominated by liberal politicans. Defense Minister Alexander Kerensky formnmed a provisional government. The Provisional Government, however, was hampered by thev Petrograd Council (Soviet) of Soldiers and Workers's Deputies. And here radical elements including the Bolshevils had considerable influence. The Provisional Government also honored commitments to the Allies. Kerensky tried to keep Russia in the War. He gave Brusilov command of another offensive against the German Southern Army in Galicia. This time Brusilov made little progress. He drove through mutinous Austrian units, but was stopped at great cost by German units commanded by Hoffman and Hutier. The Germans after stopping the Russians, launched a major offensive. This was the stroke that shattered the Russian Army. It's collapse paved the way for the Bolsheviks to seize power. The first Communist state was of course the Soviet Union. The Revolution was a reaction to the huge losses, government incompetence, and privations of World War I (1914-18), in which the Russian people, suffered greviously. The Bolsheviks emerged victorious against a democratic Provisional Government (1917). The Russian Revolution is often described as a result of social forces that had been developing for centuries. A strong case can be made for the Revolution as a coupd'état that may have never occurred without the leadership of Lenin. [Pipes] The Germans allowed Lenin who was in Switzerland to cross their territory in a sealed railway car. He arrived in Petrograd (April 1917). His demands for "peace, land, and bread" resonated with the Russian people, especially the Petrigrad Soviet with was not faorably disposed toward the liberal duma and Kerensky Government. Lenin and his allies demanded "all power to the Soviets". As the situation in Petrograd deteriorated, General Kornilov attempted to seize power. This backfired when his troops mutinied. The Bolsheviks then moved on the Provisional Government (November 7). They arrested members of the Provisional Government they could find and seized power in the name of the Soviets.

Civil War

The abdication of the Tsar and subequent Civil War led to distructive fighting between Reds and Whites (1918-22). Foreign governments intervened to assist the whites. The Red Army fought to retain the old Rusian imperial borders, but lost Finland, the Baltics Republic and large areas of White Russia to Poland. The Red Army, despite these losses, did emerge victorious in the battles with the Whites. The old Imperial Army was shatered by the Germans. Many soldiers mutinied and killed their officers. People's Commisar for War Leon Trotsky organized a new Red Army, recruiting massive numbers of peasants and workers. The Red Army without trained officers performed poorly in the early phases of the fighting. Leon Trotsky played a msajor role in fashioning the Red Army into an effective fighting force. The Bolsheviks attached political officers to all Red Army units to keep warch over the officers (many who had been in the old Imperial Army) and explain Communism to the largely illiterate peasant recruits. The Bolsheviks were especially concerned with the younger generation, untained by the Tsarist past and capitalism. The War and the Civil War affected agricultual production. Food shortsages were widespread. Large numbers of children orphaned in the fighting were sarticularly at risk. As in Europe, American food again played a role in saving millions of children.

Famine

Millions of Russians were killed in the Russian Civil War, both soldiers and civilians. Estimates suggest 10-15 million people perished. The World War I and the Civil War which followed it, devestated Russuia. Agricultural and industrial production was a fraction of pre-War levels. Estimates suggest that industrialm production was about 15 percent of pre-War levels. Agricultural producion was only about 35 percent of pre-War levels. And the disruptions resulting from the War were made even worse as a result of a drought (1920-21). Horses needed on the farm became difficult to find. This is important because at the time, Russian farms were not meganized. Tractors were almost entirely unknown. Cattle during the same period declined from 58 million to 37 million. Many were appropriated by the warring armies. One estimate indicates the number of horses declined from 35 million to only 24 million (1920). Food shortages were widespread. Not only had agricultural production declined, but the peasants were unwilling to sell their harvest for paper money which was essentially worthless. The distribution of essential commodities virtually broke down. The country's transportation system was badly damaged by the fighting, further complicating the food situation. Large numbers of children orphaned in the fighting were sarticularly at risk. The American relief mission was overseen by Herbert Hoover. As terrible as the Civil War was, the loss of life could have been much worse. The American Relief Administration (ARA) had offered Russia food relief in 1919, despite the Bolshevik takeover. The Bolsheviks rejected the offer because of the terms involved. The ARA insisted that an American overseer was to be in charge of all food stations to ensure that the food was not distributed on a political or religious basis. The Bolsehviks in 1921 changed their minds. Faced with a severe famine as a result of their Civil war and a severe drought, the Bolsheviks accepted the American terms. When a critic inquired if he was not thus helping Bolshevism, Hoover retorted, "Twenty million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!"

Refugee Waves

The borders of the Russian Empire were composed primarily of minority groups including the Finns, Balts, Poles, Ukranins and others. There were also the Jews who had been confined to the Pale of Settlement. This largely coincidded wityh the area pf the Tsarist Empire that the Germans had occupied in the War. Before the Revolution, Poles and Jew emigrated in large numbers, but not ethnic Russians. Tsarist military commanders accused these minorities of aiding and abetting the invading Grmans and Austrians and deported them to the Russian interior. After the outbreak of the War (1914), Jews who had been confined to westrern provinces, fled or were forced into the interior. Rabbi Ya‘akov Landa wasconcerned with the decklinng stte of religious observation and this was before Soviet atheist campaigns. In the south, the Turks attacked the Armenians in Anztolia who fled into Russia and Syria. Lasrge numbers of Russias fled east away from the invading Germans or been forced to relocate, perhaps 6 million people, althoygh there is no precise accounting. The enormity refugee crisis transformed many of Russia's interior towns and cities. These refugees were some of the most poorly assisted of all the European refigees. The refugee crusis appars to have contributed to the nationlist movement leading to nation independence movements (Finns, Estonia, Latvioa, Lithinia, and Poland. Oher grouos, esopecially the Ukranuins failed. World War I (1914-18) created refugees in the western area of the Tsarist Empire. This was not the Russian hearland. Rather it was areas like the Finkland, Baltics, Poland, and the Ukraine with non-Russian ethnic populations. The Russian Civil War (1919-22) in contrast created refugees fron one emd of the Tsarist Empire to another. The Revolution meaning the Bolshevik Revolution (November 1917) and resulting Civil War was a catalclismic event in Russian history. The Civil War displaced more than a million people, including a huge number of children, many who had lost their parents. The majority of the refugees were refugees because thed opposed the Bolshevik seizure of power or were fleeing from the Bolshevik terror generated by the Cheka. They refugees mostly sympathised with the Whites fighting on mumerous fronts. The Bolsheviks managed, however, to hold on to the Russian heartland. Tere were relatively little refuges from the fresulting fasmine. This was in part becuse the Bolsheviks did not allow it. It did not make good propagsnda to the worjer-[easant paeradice to admit having a famine in Europe's increably productive breadbasket.

Sources

Gatrell, Peter. A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia during World War 1 (Indiana University Press, 1999).

Opfer, Bjöve Untersuchung über die bulgarische Herrschaft in Vardar-Makedonien, 1915-1918 und 1941-1944 (Münster 2005).

Purseigle, Pierre. "A wave on to our shores: The exile and resettlement of refugees from the Western Front, 1914-1918", Contemporary European History vol. 16, no. 4, (2007), pp. 427-44. (p. 441).

Created: 3:51 AM 9/16/2015
Last updated: 5:33 AM 11/12/2022