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The Western occupation was a huge success. In a decade German was transformed from the most terrifying totalitarian power on earth to a democratic nation, fully compatable with the other Western democracies. Over time the attitudes of both the Germans and Western occupiers changed. It is not altogether clear just what caused the change on the part of the Germans. The character of the Western occupiers and their goals certainly affected German attitudes. The efficency of free market capitalism was another factor. The nature of the Soviets may have been an especially important factor. The Western Allies initially had three separate occupation zones. The first planrs were for a British and an American zone, but plans were changed to accomodate a French zone. There were some differences in the three Western zones, but faced with Soviet pressure the Western Allies eventually combined their zones. The most immediate problem was food. About 60 the population of Germany were in the French, British, and American zones. Before the War, only about 40 percent of the food was produced in the west and the War damage had significantly impaired food production.
Allied armies entering the Reich upon seizing control of an area set up a temporary military government replacing NAZI authorities at every level. They often set up government in the same town halls from which the NAZIs had gioverned. Outside the cities, these buildings were largely bundamaged. The war-time military. at least in the West, was not designed for occupation. A considerable period of adjustment was required. Men who endured great hardship and faced death for months on end were not ideally suited to suddenly become policemen and governing officials. Many had lost friends and seen what the Germans had done and as a result harbored considerable animosity toward the Germabns. One historian describes how American policymakers and Army officers had to confront and take control over a virtually lawless U.S. military in the chaos that existed in Germany following the collapse of the NAZI regime. The military was faced with money laundering, black marketeering, theft, racial antagonism between black and white GIs, unregulated sex, and high rates of venereal disease impaired American authority in occupied Germany at the same time America had to face the Soviet challenge as well as unrepentent NAZIs. American officials adopted often creative if somewhat disorganized approach to these problems. [Willoughby] We are not sure how the British and French militaries compared to the U.S. Army as a occupation force. We have heard reports that the French were more prone to seek revenge, but do not yet have any actual details.
The Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS) was official structure the United States created as a military government immediatelyn after the NAZI surrender. General Lucius D. Clay was appointed to lead OMGUS. It administered the American occupation zone. The Allied Control Council was created as the overall moccupation authority. It was made up of the military occupation authorities from the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and France. OMGUS at first reported to the U.S. Group Control Council, Germany (USGCC) (May 8 - October 1, 1945. OMGUS operated until December 5, 1949. The U.S. High Commissioner for Germany assumed control of its functions.
Post-War Germany was awash with humnity. People liberated from German cincentration nd labor camps were trying to get home. Germans at war time assignments were trying to get home. German children evacuated to the country side were trying to get home.Germans in eastern Europe had fled the Red Army. Now those who were being expelled by the national governmnts. Ironically, many of the Jews who survivd the Holocaust were stuck in Germny. Jews from East Europe for the most part could not return hime and the British blocked entry to Palestine. Western POWs got transport home. This was mjore difficult for Soviert POWS. Wounded German POWs were released. All of this movement except for the estern POWs was for the most part on foot. Virtually nothing on wheels except for Allied and Soviet military vehicles moved. The German transportation system was a major target of the Allied strategic bombing campaign, a key part of the effort to destoy the German war economy. And they did just that. Anything that movd in the Reich, trains, barges, trucks, anything on wheels was destroyed. Nor was fuel available to power anything that was not destoyed. Only animal carts moved, but hy were rre becuse so many horses had been destroyed in the War. The German transport system would hve o be rebuilt from the ground up.
The most immediate problem the Germans and the Allied occupation authorities faced was food. Food rations had been severly cut and food hard to get during Winter 1944 and the situatiion steadily deteriorated as the NAZI regime collapsed. Germany was a heavily industrialized nation and as aesult a net food importer. As a result if the War with its indistries destroyed, Germany could no longer aford to import food, even if it could be found. The food problenm was especually serious in the Western occupation zones. About 60 the population of Germany lived in the French, British, and American zones. This was the most heavily industrialized area of Germany. Before the War, only about 40 percent of the country's food was produced in the west and the War damage had significantly impaired food production. Not only were there food shortages, but the Allied bombing had destroyed Germany's transportation system, so it was difficult to transport food from the rural areas to the citie even if it was available. The Soviet occuption zone encompased largely rural eastern Germany which was more self sufficent in food production. In addition, other food producing regions in Pomperania, Silesia, and East Prussia were transfered to both Poland and the Soviet Union adding to food shortges in the western occupation zones. President Truman asked former-Presidenbt Herbert Hoover to work on the food problem in post-War Europe and Asia where millions of people faced famine. Hoover had become famous during and after World War I for his wirk in feeding war-ravaged Europe. He had also headed the American Relief Administration (1917-21). Hi work in implemented food-rationing and distribution policies for the U.S., Europe and Russia saved millions if lives. Truman appointed Hoover honorary chairman of the Famine Emergency Committee (1946). Theformer president, although 71 years old worked relentlessly traveling around the woirld study the famine and work out solutions to food problems. Again American food relief saved millions. The United States and its Allies was not at first anxious to include the Germans in its food relief effrts. In fact, food relief shipments to Germany were at first prohibited by the U.S. authorities. This did not change ubntil the situation became desperate (December 1945). The U.S. Army policy was to allow the German standard of living to fall to the the average of the neighboring countries. [Ziemke] Ameicans were not even allowed to send CARE packages to Germans. This did not change until even later (June 5, 1946) And German POWs were reclassified as Disarmed Emeny Forces. This meant they did not have to receive the same ratios as American soldiers as requited by the Genev Convention. This situation led to the 1946-47 Hunger Winter.
The initial plan for occupying Germany involved three occupation zones for each of the principal Allied powers (American, British, and Soviet) that waged the War against NAZI Germany. The Allies subsequently decided to give the French, who had been occupied ny Germany, an occupation zone as well. The French Zone was cut out of the previously determined American and British zone. Each country was responsible for administeing the occupation in their zone ahnd hsd the authority to develop policies on their own. The plan was to coordinate policies in German through the Allied Control Council, but this effort proved difficult because of the instrasigent Soviet position and program that differeed from the more democratic effort pursued by the Western allies (1946-47). Finally with the Western currency reform Soviet blockade of Berlin, cooperation ended entirely (1948). The Western Allies decided to join their occupation zone. First the Americans and British (Bizone) combined their zones and then the French zone (Trizone). The three western zones were finally joined to form the Federal Republic of Germany (May 1949). This mean that occupation policies had to be coordinated by the Western Allies. The Soviets proceeded to set up the German Democratic Republic (October 1949).
Over time the attitudes of both the Germans and Western occupiers changed. It is not altogether clear just what caused the change on the part of the Germans. The character of the Western occupiers and their goals certainly affected German attitudes. The efficency of free market capitalism was another factor. The nature of the Soviets may have been an especially important factor. One wonders if German attitudes toward their Western occupiers would have been as warm had not the specter of Soviet tyranny not existed to the east. Here a major shift in German public opinion seems to have resulted from the Berlin Air Lift. It also seems to have affected thinking in public opinion in the occupying countries.
It was not prordained that the Germany would become a staunch member iof the Western alliance. After all American and British had bombed the heart out of Germany. And before the NAZI take over, a majority of the German people voted for Communist and Socalit parties. It is not altogether clear just what caused the change on the part of the Germans. The character of the Western occupiers and their goals certainly affected German attitudes. The efficency of free market capitalism was another factor. The nature of the Soviets may have been an especially important factor. One wonders if German attitudes toward their Western occupiers would have been as warm had not the specter of Soviet tyranny not existed to the east. Here a major shift in German public opinion seems to have resulted from the Berlin Air Lift. It also seems to have affected thinking in public opinion in the occupying countries.
The Allied policies toward Germany were very different after World War II than World War I. This time the question of war guilt wa not in doubt, at least after press freedom was restored (in the Western occupatio zones). And of course there was an occupation after World War II hich did not occur after World War I. As to why post-War policy was so different, there seem to be several factors at play. We suspect that the fact that the United States was the predominant actor was a factor. And this brought into play American idealism as well as the fact that so many Americans were of German ancestry. But we think the Germans can thank Stalin. Instead of reaching an accommodation with America, Stalin sought to launch the Cold War and not only set up a repressive Eastern European Empire, but attempt to takeover Western Europe as well. As a result, the United States needed a central European ally. This essentially ended any desire to punish the Germans on largely pragmtic grounds. And it dive-tailed with the German fear of Stalin and the Red Army. The Germans were not afraid of Socialism, they were very afraid of Stalin and the Russians. Most were aware of what the Red Army did in the Soviet occupation zone at the end of the War.
Fraternization was an issue from the time the Allies drove into Germany territory. The orgy of rape that followed in the wake of the Red Army did not occur in the western occuppation zones. This was because it was not tolerated by Allied commanders. Nor were Allied soldiers interested in gang rape. That is not to say that there was no crimes commitd by individual Allied soldiers, but there were no toleration of wide spread rape or other actions. Also force usually was not necessary. American GIs were well supplied with cigarettes, chocolate, and othervhard to get items. Military authorities at the very beginning of occupation issued strict rules prohibiting fraternization. This varied among the occupying powers. General Eisenhower ensured a strict non-fraternization policy was enforced throughout all commands of Allied occupation troops in Germany. This coverned all Allied forces, including the Britih, Canadian, French, and other Allie forces. This policy proced unenforceable and was widely ignored. As a result, it was very rapidly relaxed in stages. The first step was relaxing the prohibition on speaking with German children (June 1945). Children would commonly apprach Allied soldiers out of interest and knowing that there was candy to be had. Expecting Allied soldiers to ignore the friendly approaches of charming little chilren was absurd from the beginning. And quickly afterwards, Allied soldiers were allowed to speak to German adults in certain circumstances (July 1945). Gen. Eisenhower finally escended the whole effort to enforce a strict no frternization policy (September 1945). Efforts continued to limit contact. As the three Westrn allies set up their separate occupation zones, rules were established by national authorities. As regards fraternization, the British authorities were less strict than the Americans while the French were more strict. Soviet authorities tended to be the most strict. The most obvious type of fraterization was liasons between Alliedsoldiers and German women. And soon children were involved and mothers having a very difficult time in the desperate condition of defeated Germany. The usually destitute mothers wre unable to get child support. American soldiers were not allowed to pay maintenance even if they admitted being a father. This was at first put in the 'aiding the enemy' category. There were so much fraterniztion, that Allied authorities very quickly relented. American authorities began permitting marriages between U.S. soldiers and Austrian women (January 1946). The same step was taken in Germany (December 1946). [Biddiscombe] Evebtually, Americn soldiers woukd bring large numbers of war brides home.
Large numbers of foreign troops since World War II have been stationed in Germany. The Soviets occupied eastern Germany. The Western Allies (America, britain, and France) occupied western Germany. And the foreign militaries were not just present during the occupation. Even after German soverignity was restored, the foreign militaries remained. Germany was on the dividing line between East and West in the Cold War. The roles of the Soviets and Western Allies varied. The Soviets were in the DDR not only as a Warsaw Pact force to defend the borders, but to ensure the survival of the Communist regime which had little popular support. The Western Allies remaind in the DFR at the request of a freely elected democratic gvernment. What ever the reasons, large numbdrs of foreign troops remained in Germany for several decades after World War II. The inevitable result was a substantial number of children fathered by the foreign troops. We believe that the vast proportion of these children were born in the first decade of the occupation (1945-55), but we have little data to substantiate this. The number of children involved is substantial, almost certainly exceeding 100,000 but we do not have precice data. There seems to be substasntial differences among the different occupation forces.
Allied soldiers as a result of losses of friends in the War and then the discovery of the concentration camps harbored much bittrness toward the Germansin the early stageof the occupation. These attitudes gradually changed. Here we believe one factor was the German children. American soldiers often made friends with local children. American GIs were famous for their kindness to boys and girls who were sometimes almost "adopted" as surrogate sons and daughters of lonely young soldiers who missed their own families, especially younger brothers and sisters, in the United States. Similar relationships developed during the Berlin Air Lift. GIs often gave children scarce goodies such as chocolate bars from the base PX--also occasionally valuable commodities like soap and cigarettes which they could take home to their parents. The fact that the German kids looked like the kids back home could not help but affect many GIs, but thge same affect occurred in Asia as well. The mothers of such boys often did small tasks for the GIs such as laundering and mending their clothes. The payment for such services was frequently some hard-to-obtain product like a bar of soap or a pack of cigarettes. A flourishing black market had developed in the American sector of Germany, much of what was sold coming from American military bases in the region. American-made silk stockings for women were immensely popular with German women-folk and virtually impossible to obtain from German shops. The photograph here shows a German boy on the rural outskirts of Darmstadt, Germany, with his new friend, an American GI. It seems to be late autumn (probably November) since the landscape is quite bleak. Note also the soldier's winter-issue cap with wool ear flaps turned up, woolen shirt and trousers of olive drab worn with button-on suspenders. American soldiers only wore this uniform during the fall and winter months. The boy seems to be from a neighboring farm and is about eight or nine years old. He wears a woolen stocking cap with a small pom-pom on top, a winter jacket of what appears to be plaid material (it buttons down the front with large buttons), longish short pants, heavy woolen long stockings (grey apparently), and hightop boots that lace up. This was typical rural dress for boys who lived on farms in the area. Darmstadt was in the American zone during the occupation of Germany in 1948.
The NAZIs upon seizing power were concerned about the coubtry's schools. There were some pro-NAZI teachers and administrators. There were even more anti-NAZIs an apolitical staff. Thus Reichsminister f�r Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung (Minister of Science, Education and National Culture) was appointed (1934). He was an early and ardent NAZI
He energetically set out to NAZIfy the country's education system as well as advcating some bizarre policies. He succedded in creating a throughly NAZI education system by the time Hitlker launched Word War II. Education was as a result given considerble attention by the Allies. All concerned agreed that major reforms were needed. Germany was preceived as a "belligerent nation" and that it was necessary to democratize the country to prepare it to exist in a peaceful and productive Europe. Reforming German education was seen to be a central part of this process. There were many difficulties here. The military government lacked qualified teachers, textbooks, and school buildings. Germany had one of the finest educational systems in Europe. Eeducational traditions rooted in a class-based social structure and strong church influence. Ironically these were concerns that the NAZIs also had and had done a great deal to weaken. The NAZI education weaken the quality of German education, replacing many qualified teachers with party hacks. American officials saw educational as n integral aspect of denazification and the effort to develop a democratic political culture. Here reformers faced a still unanswered question about Germany. Were there aspects of German culture which led inevitanly toward miltarism and racism? Occupation authorities closed and then reopened schools, universities, and teacher training colleges after they were "denazified." Occupation authorities gradually responsibility for administering the educational system and cultural institutions to regional and city authorities.
The Western occupation was a huge success. In a decade German was transformed from the most terrifying totalitarian power on earth to a democratic nation, fully compatable with the other Western democracies. Although not fully preceived in 1945, Germany had a substantial democratic tradition. The NAZIs so successfully turned Germany into a totalitarian state that those traditio were obscured. Germany struggled with democracy after the Napoleonic era. The success of liberal democracy varied from state to state. Democratic reforms achieved some successes in the Revolutions of 1848. In Imperial Germany there were democratic institutions and a lively if restrained press. The Weimar Republic following World War I was a fully fuctioning parliamentary democracy. Hitler's success in dismantlling thar system within only a few weeks suggests, however, that democracy was not yet ingrained in the minds of the German people.
World War II had left Europe devastated. A staggering 40 million people were killed in World War II. German cities had been levelled by the Allied strategic bombing. Fighting on the Eastern Front had also destroyed cities in Russia and Eastern Europe. The economies were prostrate. Jobs did not exist and capital was scarce to revitalise the economies. The performance of the Communists in the Resistance had increased their prestige. The desperate economic conditions also increased support for the Communists. After the War, the Communists were one of the largest political parties throughout Western Europe, especially in France and Italy. Only in Germany where people feared the Russians did the Communists not build an electoral threat. In an effort to promote economic recovery, the United States implemented the Marshall Plan. (It was not called the Truman Plan because that would have doomed it in the Republican controlled American Congress.) The Plan was proposed by American Secretary of State George C. Marshall in 1947. Eventually over $12 billion (in 1948 dollars) was provided. This assistance is generally credited with helping to launch the European economic recovery. Some authors down play the importance of the Marshall Plan, maintaining that the recovery was already well underway. [Hitchcock] Marshall Plan assistance was offered to Russia and the Eastern European satellites. Stalin, suspicious of American intentions, rejected the offer and speeded the establishment of Stalinist regimes throughout Eastern Europe. [Hitchcock]
A major factor in the success of the Western occupation probably had less to do with politics and democracy, but the efficency of the free market. This came as agreat shock to the Soviets in particular who fervently believed that Soviet-style command economics was the most advanced economic system in the world. After the jump start provided by the American Marshall Plan, the German economy took off. The economic expansion was starrling. West German economic growth outstripped that in East Germany whih proved the most dymamic economy in the Eadt Bloc. Factories rose from the ribble left from the War. Germany workers within only a few years were among the most affluent in Europe and soon out-stripped Brotish workers. German workers achieved higher wages and living standards than in all of German history. The economy expanded so rapidly that workers had to be imported from other countries, including Otaly and Turkey. This affluence must have helped sell democracy to the German people just as inflation and depression had poisoned attitides toward the Weimar Republic, The Soviets and East German Communists were astonished. This was not susposed to occur. And worst still, because East Germans could listen to West German radio and later television, the growing gap between the two Germanies was fully understood.
A German reader, Hans, who was 10 years old at the end of the War tells us about his personal experiences.
Biddiscombe, P. "Dangerous liaisons: The anti-fraternization movement in the U.S. Occupation Zones of Germany and Austria, 1945�1948". Journal of Social History (3001)Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 611�47.
Hitchcock, William I. The Struggle for Europe: The Turbulent History of a Divided Continent (Doubleday), 513p. This is a thought provoking, well researched book. He has gained access to never before used Soviet archives. We do not agree with all of his conclusions. The author in many instances, for example, tends to explain Soviet actions as response to American policies rather than the inherent nature of a brutal regime.
Willoughby, John. Remaking the Conquering Heroes: The Postwar American Occupation of Germany (Palgrave Macmillan/Palgrave, 2003).
Ziemke, Earl F. The U.S. Army In The Occupation of Germany 1944�1946.
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