Figure 1.--The Imperial Government after invading Manuchria with limited success attempted to promote Japanese emigrtion, dspecily farmers. They recived land tken from the Chinese. After the Soviet Red Army occupied Manchuria (1945), the Japanese civilians attempted to return to Japan. Most did so willingly. The press caption here read, "Home and hungary: A Japanese youngster, hungary after his long trip from Russian-controlled Manchuria, munches an apple supplied by the Japanese Red Cross on his arrival in Tokyo, Oct. 12. He was on the first group of Japanese to be repatriated by the Russians." The portrait was taken in October 1946 more than a year after the War ended.

In adition to the Japanese military, there were also large numbers of civilians stranded overseas atthe end of thevWar. German civilians after the War encountered the hatred of people in neigboring countries and suffered terribly. We are less certain certain about the experience of Japanese civilians. Japan began building an empire with the seizure of Formosa (Taiwan) in 1895 and Korea (1910). Part of Japan's colonial policy involved installing Japanese administrators, but there were also efforts to establish a Japanese population as well as to establish Japanese culture. The local population was, for example, required to learn and speak Japanese. The Japanese Government after seizing Manchuria (1931), promoted Japanese settlement, but with only limited success. I'm not sure about the number of civilians involved or about their interactions with the local population. We have noted references to over 4 million people, but this may include the Japanese military as well. Much of the transport was provided by the U.S. Navy. Most of the civilians repatriated came from Formosa, Korea, and Manchuria, but smaller numbers came from other places as well, such as Saipan. There were substantial numbers of Japanese civilians in both North Korea and Manchuria. As far as we know, the Soviets and the Chinesd did not restrict the repasrtristion of Jaspanese civilians. We have little information on the conditions of the repatriation. It wiukld take years to get them all home. In recebt years, the children are adults blamne the Government for showing little interest in them and making no interest in getting them home.

Japanese Empire (1894-1945)

In adition to the Japanese military, there were also large numbers of civilians stranded overseas at the end of the War. Japan began building an empire with the seizure of Formosa (Taiwan) in 1895 and Korea (1910). Part of Japan's colonial policy involved installing Japanese administrators, but there were also efforts to establish a Japanese population as well as to establish Japanese culture. The local population was, for example, required to learn and speak Japanese. But only in two palces did the Japanese seek to change the demographic balannce and implant a Japanese population--Manchuria and Saipan in the Marianas. The poweful Japanese Kwantung Army after seizing Manchuria (1931). The Japanese Government did not order the seizure, but accepted it and launched an effort to promoted Japanese settlement. This only proved to be a limited success. Japanese farmers were largely reluctant to leave Japan for the unknown of Manchuria. I'm not sure about the number of civilians involved or about their interactions with the local population. We have noted references to over 4 million people, but this may include the Japanese military as well.

Sino-Japanese War (1937-45)

The Kwantung Army seized Manchuria and small provinces to the south (1931-36). Japan then launched a major effort to take control of all of China -- the Second Sino Japanese War (1937). The Chinese were no match fot the better trained and armed Japanmese. After some pitched battles, the Chinese Nationalists withdrew to the country's interior. Here the Japanese did not have the industril power to build military forces that could reach and defdeat the Natonalists. To make matters worse for the Japanese, their barabities in China such as the Rape of Nanking brought increasing sympaythy for China in the West, most impotantly the United States. American involvement gradually increased from diplomtuc support to financial and material support.

Pacific War (1941-45)

There was a long Japanese road to war with the United States. This led to Pearl Harbor and the Pacific War with the Japanese miliarists deciding that it would be easier to defeat the United States than the Chinese Nationalists. After 6 months of spectacular victories, the Japanese experienced one catasrophhic defeat after another. The Americans invading the Marianas leading to one of the many tragedies of the Pacific War (June 1944). Bcause of what Japanese authorities told the Japanese civilians on Saipan about the Americans, large numberrs of terrified Japanese civilians committed suiside with parents killing their children. The defeats resulted in the Japanese commanders gradually reducing the Kwantung Army (their military force in Manchuria) to redeploy against the Americans in the Pacific or the Chinese to the south. The Kwabtung Army had been the strongest formation in the Japanese Army. Thus by the time the Soviets invaded, the military forces in Manchuria had been reduced, but there had been no effort to repariate the Japanese civiliann population. The Japanese had made no effort to demonize the Sovierts as they did the Americans. Thus there wsas no mass suiside when the Red Army arrived as was the case on Saipan.

Civilian Situation (August 1945)

The Soviet Union after a massive buildup lunched a poweful massive invasion of Japanese-occupied Manchurian and other Japanese territories (August 8, 1945). The miltary was preparing to fall back to Korea. The Japanese civilians had no inkling of an inpending invasion and no way of getting back to Japan. The ivasion was launched shortly before the Amerians dropped the second atomic bonb on Nagagasaki (August 9). A few days later, Emperror Hirohito announced the Japanese surrender to a stunned nation (August 14). The Japanese Imperial Government strongly promoted Manchurian settlement for more than a decade, but then basically made no effort to rescue them as the Soviets began preparing for an invasion. When ehe Soviets finlly attacked, the Imperial Goverrnment just abandoned thmm. The high commnd ordred the Army to fall back and defend Japan's interests in Korea. As a result, some 223,000 Japanese settlers were ledt to flee and fend for themselves. Over than a third are believed to have perished. Some 11,5000 people aparently were killed , about half in violent actions and the other half suicide. Amother 67,000 people (largely the most vilnerable -- women, children, and the elderly) died of starvation and disease during the ensduing months. Some group reptritions to Japan were eventually organized. [Young, 409-11.] Group repatriations were organized on and off bcause of politicl isues between yhe Sivits/Chinese Communists and Japanese. . German civilians after the War encountered the hatred of people in neigboring countries and suffered terribly. Many had cooperated with NAZI occupation authorities in brutal, even genicidal, actions during the War. Many fled to Germany along with NAZI armes (1944-45). Those that remained were riven out, often brutally. We are less certain certain about the experience of Japanese civilians in the various areas they had occupied., but it is aslsdo generally yhe case that tyhe Japabese were rerviled in China. The numbers were fairly small, except in Saipan and and Manchuria.

Repatriation

Most of the civilians repatriated came from Formosa, Korea, and Manchuria, but smaller numbers came from other places as well, such as Saipan. The largest numbers came from the settler in Manchuria. Much of the transport for Japanese stranded in Saipan was was provided by the U.S. Navy. There were substantial numbers of Japanese civilians in both North Korea and Manchuria. As far as we know, the Soviets and the Chinese did not restrict the repasrtristion of Japanese civilians, alhough there were breakdowns in diplomatic relations. They did not, mhowever provide needed transport. We have little information on the conditions of the repatritions. The Japanese civilians who got to Amerucan occupoied South Korea were repatriated fairly quickly. We do not know about those who found themnselves in Soviet occupied North Korea. The settlers stranded in Manchuria had a very difficult time with large numbers perishing in the immediate chaos of the War after the Soviet invasion. Eventually group reparations were orgnaized although it took more than a decade to get the settlers home. This was still complicated by the changing political circumstances. After the Soviet era, control was turned over to the Chinese Communists (1949). Shortly after the Korean War broke out (June 1950). Japan was not officially involved, but American forces operated from Japanese bases and used Japanese ports. All of this complicated reparations.

War Orphans/Zanryü Koji

There was a special group of children that have been largly forgotten, Japamese chilftrn separaed from their parents in the in the chaos of Soviet invasion. Several thousand Japanese infants and children were stranded in Manchuria. They were informally adopted by sympthetic Chinese families. In some cases parents found Chinese families to temporarily care for infants and younger children. Some of the children gterw up with no knoewledg of their Japanese ancestry. This was often done to protect the children because the Japanese were so reviled in China because of their barbarity during the War. No one knows the number thast were assimilated into Chinse society. The war orphans were often not sure of their parentge and most were totally cut off from Japanese society. Oldedr children were aware of thir Jaobese otiginsand in many cases harbored a desirte to reach Japan. And because of Soviet and then Chinese Communust control weere stabded in Manchuria for three decades. China began to reopen to the world providiung opprtunities to return to Japan on their own (1970s). Sino-Jpnese relations were normqlized (1972). Forrmer settlers and soldiers pushed the Jaonese Government to find and repatriat the war orphans. Eventually some 2,500 Japanese 'war orphans' made it back to Japan, in many cases with families they formed as young adults. They have reported serious problems adjusting to Japanese society. [Efird] It would take years for many of the children to get home to Japan. They have criticized the Japanese Government for making little or no effort to find, repatriate, and resettle the war orphans. The war orphans in recent years have voiced grievances filed law suits against the Japanese governments claiming compensation (2002). [Efird] Historians have vgenerally focused on the suffering of Japan's victims during Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific. This rather small group of Japanese victims has been largely ignored, but has received some attention in Japan. One hostorin chatges tht yhe Japanese Governmnt has been reluctant to address this isuue becuse it does not comport with the narrative of the War yht yhe Govrmrnt promotes--nmely Japanese victimhood. [Efrid, p. 365.]

Sources

Efird, Robert. "Japan's 'War Orphans': Identification and state responsibility," The Journal of Japanese Studies Vol. 34, No. 2 (Summer, 2008), pp. 363-88.

Young, Louise. Japan's Total Empire (Berkely: University of California Press, 1999).

Created: 6:18 AM 7/11/2010
Last updated: 8:18 AM 4/13/2022