Figure 1.-- Here we see a Mexican family traveling to the United States to participate in the Bracero program during 1944.

Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas, as Europe descended into war like the other American republics, declared Mexican neutrality. As in several other Latin American countries, tensions had began to develop betweem right wing pro-Fascist and left wing pro-Communist groups (mid-1930s). Individual Mexican attitudes were larely determined by their political outlook. Few Mexivans saw the war as a conflict between democracies and totalitarianism. And the NAZI-Sovier Pact confused even committed Communists. And virtually no Mexicans understood how their largely Mestizo population would fare in a world dominated by the race-obsessed NAZIs. It was not even discussed in the press. For that matter it is not well understood in Latin America today. Mexico had a subtantial oil industry which before the War exported to Europe, including Germany before the War. The Cardenas Government seized the largely foreign-owned oil undustry, an eraly step toward today's largely state-owned world-wide oil industry. This could have badly damaged Mexican-Americam relatiions. The Roosevelt Administration, did not strongly react. Early in his administration, President Roosevelt had ininiated his Good Neighnor Policy early in his administration. As part of that policy, the United States assisted the Mexican Govennment whether a financial crisis by buying Mexican silver and providing low-cost loans backed by the U.S. Treasury. Now with war in Europe and concerned about tensions in Mexico and other countries, the Roosevelt Administration began to offer support to many countries, including Mexico. Mexico for its part cooperated in FBI actions throughout Latin Americara rounding up Axis agents. The Germans had been active in the region, including Mexico. Mexico was of special interest to the germans because of the border with the United States. Mexico held one of its pro-forma elections (1940). Conservative candidate Juan Almazan faced the governing Partido Revolucianrio Institucional (Revolutionary Institutional Party--PRI) candidate Manuel Ávila Camacho. Mexican elections at the time and for several decaded to come were rigged so the PRI and Ávila could not lose. Mexican exports to Germany were blocked by the Royal Navy blockade, but were quickly substituted with purchaes by the British, French for a time) and Americans. Mexican and many other Latin American countries broke diplmatic relations with Japan shortly after Pearl Harbor (December 1941). Hitler declared war on the United States. And the Germans quickly launched a U-boat camapaign along the American East Coast and Gulf of Mexico -- Operationj Drum Beat (January 1942). As part of that effort, they sank two Mexican tankers in the Gulf of Mexico. The Mexican Government answered with a declaration of war against the Axis powers -- Germany, Italy, and Japan (May 28, 1942). Mexico and the United States signed agreements permiting unlimited reciprocal use of airfields and facilities. The U.S. Army Air Force established several bases in Mexico to train personnel. The United States under Lend Lease provided military equipment and supplies to Mexico. Mexico made two imprtant contributions to the war effort. First the country provided large qiantities of critical. Second Mexico provided needed labour through the Bracero Program. President Ávila accepted a U.S. invitation to provide Mexican air force units in the war against. Escadeon 201 equipped with Lend Lease Republic P-47D Thunderbolt fighter bombers was deployed first to the Philippines (February 1945) and then to Okinawa (July 1945). They flew 795 combat sorties ahd lost 7 pilots.

After the Revolution (1920s-30s)

The Mexican Revolution was thge first great Revolution of the 20th century (1910-20). fevestated Mexico which was not a wlathy country to begin with. The country's infrastructure was devestated by 10 years of warfare. There was tremdous military and civilian casualties. Hundreds of thousands of liveswere lost and many more people displaced. Homes and even cities were dstroyed. There was no Roaring Twenties in Mexico. Soon after the end of the Revolution brutal Cristero War btoke out (1926–29). This was a series of scattered uprisings against the new government. And then the country was struck by the Great Depression. The Mexican ecinomy was hard hit as markets for its exports dried up. Political instability continued. Alvaro Obregón, the great revolutionary warlord, finally ended the Revolution controlled the country directly or indirectly (until 1928).. Life in Mexico finally began to improve when a real reformer Lázaro Cárdenas del Rio became president (1934). He attemoted to end the vpervasive corruption. He maintained Mexican neurtrality, but had an anti-American bias. His bofest steop was natiionalizing the oil industry.

Pre-War Years

Mexico had a subtantial oil industry which before the War was an imprtant supplier to Europe, including Germany before the War. President Lázaro Cárdenas del Río was a general in the Constitutionalist Army during the Mexican Revolution and a statesman who served as President of Mexico (1934-40) had been a general in the Mexican Revolution. He pursued anti-American polocies. Despite the Mexican Revolutiin, the oil indistry was still in foreign hands even ghiough the Consitution clearly provoided that natural resources belonged to the nation. The Cardenas Government seized the largely foreign-owned oil industry (1938). He founded a state oil compmay--Petroleros Mexicvanos (PEMEX). This was an early step toward today's largely state-owned world-wide oil industry. This could have badly damaged Mexican-Americam relations. The major issue was thr nationalizxation of American oil operations in Mexico. [Rankin] The Roosevelt Administration, however, did not react as strongly as might be expected. One reason was when it occurred. By 1938 President Rossevelt was becoming increasingkly concerned about a =nother war in Europe. Early in his administration, President Roosevelt had initiated his Good Neighnor Policy. As part of that policy, the United States assisted the Mexican Govennment whether a financial crisis by buying Mexican silver and providing low-cost loans backed by the U.S. Treasury.

American Good Neighbor Policy

Latin American countries at the Sixth Pan-American Conference in Havana (1928) criticized the United states for its armed interventions. Presidents Roosevelt, Taft, Wilson, Harding and Cooldildge had all been involved in these interventions. At the time dring the Coolidge Administration, U.S. Marines were still in both Haiti and Nicaragua. This reflected a nadir in American relations with the United States. Newly elected President Herbert Hoover agreed that American policy needed to change. He coined the phrase, 'Good Neighbors'. Hoover went on a goodwill trip to Latin America after his 1928 election. He gave a speech in Honduras in which he declared, We have a desire to maintain not only the cordial relations of governments with each other, but also the relations of good neighbors." And during his presidency he followed up on ths by adopting policies to improve relations. The Clark Memorandum essentially retracted President Roosevelt's Corollary to the 1823 Monroe Doctrine (1930). The Roosevelt Cororollary asserted that only the United States could collect debts owed to foreigners by countries in the Western Hemisphere. The Clark Memorandum did not repudiate the American right to intervee. Hoover also withdrew the U.S, Marines from Nicaragua and planned their removal from Haiti which had been the greatest irritant in Hemispheric relations. Unfortunately the Wall Street Crash and ensuing Depression caused not only economic hardship in America, but other countries as well, including Latin America. The Smoot-Hawley Tariff was especially damaging (1930). President-elect Roosevelt at the behest of adviswers like Adolf Berle also concluded that a reset was needed in American relations with Latin America. The new President in inaugural address even raised the issue. He commited to improving regionaal relations. "In the field of world policy, I dedicate this nation to the policy of the good neighbor — the neighbor who resolutely respects himself and, because he does so, respects the rights of others." President Roosevelt continued Hoover's iniative. Secretary of State Cordell Hull was given the task of improving relatios with Latin America. Secretary Hull at the Seventh Montevideo-Pan-American Conference in Uruguay committed the United Sttes to a policy of non-intervention (1933). A major step was lowering tariffs. The impact of Smoot-Hawley Tariff had hurt Latin American economies, many of which were based on eporting raw materials. Cuba which was dependent on sugar had been especially hard hit. The United states also renegotiated the Panama Canal Treaty (1936). And the United States restrained from intervening when Mexico expropriated foreign mostly American oil companies (1938). The American Good Neighbor meant that well before the World war II crisis had begun, the United States had done a good deal achieve non-hostile neighbors to the south. This greatly eased the task of securing Latin American cooperation in the War effort, chiefly by maintaining the unterupted flow of petroleum and other crtical raw materials.

Nationalizing the Oil Industry

The Mexican government nationalized the oil industry and revoked foreign, primarily U.S., oil concessions. As in other Latin American countries, the Mexican oil industry was primarily developed with American cvapital and techmology. The U.S. government did not retaliate EWe note typical anti-American editorializing that this was in part due to 'fears Mexico will align with Germany in World War II'. This is unlikely because the prinary orientatioin was left-wing, not right-wing and the practical knowledge that if Mexico sided with Grrmany, not only would invite American intervention, but given the strength of the British Royal Navy and the U.S. Navy, it could have nor exported it oil. At the time there was only a small domestic market for oil. The American decesion to accept the Mexican natiinalization, was in keeping with the Roosevelt Administration's Good Neigbor policy and effort to develop a more friendly relationship with the Latin American republics. Mexico's new policy was the beginning of oil nationalizations that would occur following World War II.

Neutrality (1939-41)

Mexican President Lazaro Cardenas, as Europe descended into war like the other American republics, declared Mexican neutrality. The intinal concerns for Mexico and other Latin American republics was economic. Latin American countries had economies primarily based on exporting commodities and European countries were major customers. Britain instututed a nnaval blockade of Germany which expanded as countries joined or were coinqyued by the Germans. While there was a period of adjustment, Brfitain and Aneriuca fully replaced lost markets. One author writes, "Over those years as World War II is heating up, the United States is slowly stepping in and replacing Europe in places where Latin America really relied on European markets for trade." [Rankin] The major threat thus became the German U-boats. After the election of Ávila to the presidency (1941), Mexico agreed to compensate the foreign oil compamies for their losses and a new market for Mexican oil opened, i.e. the United States. This essentially defused a potentially divisive issue. As in several other Latin American countries, tensions had began to develop betweem right wing pro-Fascist and left wing pro-Communist groups (mid-1930s). Individual Mexican attitudes were larely determined by their political outlook. Few Mexicans saw the war as a conflict between democracies and totalitarianism. And the NAZI-Sovier Pact confused even committed Communists. And virtually no Mexicans understood how their largely Mestizo population would fare in a world dominated by the race-obsessed NAZIs. It was not even discussed in the press. For that matter it is still not well understood in Latin America today. Now with war in Europe and concerned about tensions in Mexico and other countries, the Roosevelt Administration began to offer support to many countries, including Mexico. Mexico for its part cooperated in FBI actions throughout Latin Americara rounding up Axis agents. The Germans had been active in the region, including Mexico. Mexico was of special interest to the Germans because of the border with the United States. Mexico held one of its pro-forma elections (1940).

Twin Elections (1940)

Both America and Mexico held presidential electiins (1940). The war in Europe resulted in the unepected third term for President Roosevelt. The Mexican election was more compliccated. Conservative Party candidate Juan Almazan faced the governing Partido Revolucianrio Institucional (Revolutionary Institutional Party--PRI) candidate Manuel Ávila Camacho. Mexican elections at the time and for several decadeds to come were rigged so PRI candidate Ávila could not lose. As ordained, Ávila was elected (July 1940). The new President did not take office, however, for some time December 1940). Unlike previous elections, there was considerable resistance to the obviouly 'managed' election results, pergaps because Ávila was seen as more comservative than previous PRI candidates. It is possible that Almazan actually recrived the most vote. It is certain that he got far more than the 7 percent reported in he officil results. The election proved to be the most violent in Mexican history since the Revolution, with clashes between Ávila Camacho's and Almazán's supporters on election day resulting in at least 47 deaths and 400 people being injured. Almazan attempted to overturn the election results. Followers in America as during the Revolution started buying military supplies. Almazan also found support in Spain. Agents of the Spanish Falange fomented subversive activities. Elected a few months after the Mexican election (November 1940), used both the FBI and U.S. military intelligence to quietly assist the Mexican authorities. We are unsure just how serious the threat was, but the supportive American policy was appreciated by President-elect Ávila. The Roosevelt Administration by recognizing the newly elected Mexican President, gave legitimacy to his presidency. Even before President Ávila was innagurated. President Roosevelt had sent U.S undersecretary of State Sumner Wells to meet with Mexican officials to formulate a settlement of divisive issues. This mean that most of the major problems that had plagued U.S.- Mexican relations since the Revolutiion had been resolved. Anda new issue, how to handle Mexican citizens who chose to join the U.S. Armed Forces was resolved before it became a major issue. President Roosevelt then sent Vice-President-elect Henry Wallace to the Mexican inauguration ceremony. It was signal to how close Ávila supporters and the Roosevelt Administration had become. And a clear commitment by Mexico to the anti-Fascist effort and a moderation of Cardenista anti-American foreign policy.

Political Mileau

Mexico was mot a democracy at the time of Wirld War II. The PRI which emerged from the Revolution was a one-party dictatorship. It was not, however, a totalitarian dictarorship. There was fair degree of political discourse allowed. There wee elctions, but the PRI cointrolled who won the elections. Thus while other political parties were allowed, there was no real political opposition. This mean that public opinion had no way of direcly affecting state policy, although PRI officials did not ignore it. The PRI was not Communist, but left-wing elements were important in the PRI, especially the labor unions and to some extent the universities. The Communists were thus a force to be recockened with. As Europe move toward war, many Mexicans began to take sides. the Mexican Comminist Party followed Moscow's lead and was highly critical of the NAZIs and fascism in general. This sudenly changed when Hiler and Stalin negotiated the NAZI-Soveiet Pact (August 1939). Critucisms of the NAZIs dinminished. And again sudenly changed whaen the NAZIs invaded the Siviuet Uniom (June 1941). The Comminist began supporting the Allied cause. There was a sizable community of Italian immigrants who supported entry in the war as an Axis power as well. Other Mexicans, disdainful of Fascism, supported joining the Allied cause. Many PRI officials had socialisting leanings, but were not Communists. The Communist Party was allowed to function. As in most countries, the Mexican Communist Party was controlled by Moscow thriugh the NKVD. Thus Stalin coild use the Mexican Communist to get at Troysky (1940). Interestingly Communisdts like Trotsky did not lose their faith in Comminism (August 1940). Most saw Stalian as an aberation not the natural develoopment of a totalitarian society. And despite the ice pick in his head, neither did most of his followers. Mexican Communists were anti-Fascist after the NAZIs seized power in Germany (1933). The NAZI-Soviet Pact between Stalin and Hitler (August 1939) which led to a NAZI-Soviet alliance and World War II shocked many Communists and other left-wing Mexicans. Most were confused, but it visiably affected anti-Fascist rhetoric in the media. Most were confused. Despite the nationalizatioin of the oil indudtry, we begin to see closer ties with the United States including economic ties. Some mostly left-wing were criticval of this. Mexicans who had supported President Cárdernas nationalistic anti-American policies charged that the United States was seeking to control the entire economy. And criricised the more cooperative approach of President Canacho. The attitude of many Mexicans was of course colored by their political outlook. Those with keftish orientation opposed the NAZis, exceot during the periof when the Soovits and and NAZIs were allies (1939-41). Others took a more nationalist outlook and ficused on perceived historical grievances with America, especially the loss of Texas and the American Southwest during the Mexican-American War. Thee were also several incursions into Mexican territory. They thuis thought that Mexicans thought that they should join the Axis to confront the Unuted states. Others took the more realistic arritide of not giving thhe Americans an excuse to invade again and favored strict neutrality. There were also Mexican by NAZI aggrssion nd brutality. It is difficult to neasure the strength of these various threads, espcially as they overlapped. After the NAZIs invaded the Soviet Union (June 1941), the Soviets became part of the anti-NAZI coalition. With the devestaing Pearl Harbor attack (December 1941) there was actual fear of a Japanese invasion. After Midway this concern rapidly faded and additudes tooward the Germans shifted. Mexico broke off relationships with the Axis countries after Pearl Harbor, but stopped short of a declaration of war. They were still being wooed by both the Axis countries, especially Germany as well as Fascist-oriented Spain. One author suggests that Allied proganda was infliencing Mexican opinion. [Lemcheck] We have little information on this. Mexico had an Italian minority which was vocally pro-Axis. Thus the Mexican Government was caught between its own left and right wing partisans was initially unwilling to go further. [Lencheck]

Early Anti-German Steps

After the outbreak of World War II Mexicp declared its neutality (1939). Mexico began moving against the Axis rom a fairly ealy point. There were important German investmaents in Mexico. This included owenership of iron, hardware, chemicals, and pharmaceutical companies. Mexico closed its ports to German ships and submarines. we have no infotmatiin at this time on the decision making of the Mexican Government. Had they not, the impact on relations with the United States would have been disastrous. The United States was willing to accept nationalization of the oil industry. It would not accepted German U-boats operating from Mexican ports. We suspect that this was never on the table. Closing its ports to Axis shipping was not of grerat imprtance because of the Royal Navy blockade, but signalled to America and Britain just where Mexico stood. fter the Jaopanese attack on Pearl Harbor (December 1941), Mexico was one of the first countries to pledge support and aid to the United States. It immeditely severed all diplomatic ties with the Axis powers. At the Rio de Janeiro of Latin American foreign ministers (January 1942), the Mexican delegation advocated that other countries follow Mexico's example and break ties with the Japn and the other Axis powers which decak=red war on America.

Declaration of War (May 1942)

Mexico and many other Latin American countries broke diplmatic relations with Japan shortly after Pearl Harbor (December 9, 1941). After Hitler and Mussolini declared war on America, Mexico brole relations with those countries as well (Decemnber 11). Immediately after, at the Conference of Foreign Ministers held in Rio Janeiro, Brazil, Mexico’s delegation pushed the idea that Western Hemisphere should band together for mutial cooperation and defense (January 1942). There does not seem to have been German attacks on Mexican shipping at first. This was in part because so much of it was moving to American ports. We are unsure to what extent they were involved with Britisg convoys. Hitler with Pearl Harbor declared war on the United States. And the Germans quickly launched a U-boat camapaign along the American East Coast and Gulf of Mexico -- Operationj Drum Beat (January 1942). Now operaing even in the Gulf of Mexico, the U-boats sank two Mexican tankers in the Gulf of Mexico. The Mexican Government after some hesitation answered with a declaration of war against the Axis powers -- Germany, Italy, and Japan (May 28, 1942). One historian writes, "Over the couple of decades after the [Mexican] Revolution took place, the common narrative became that it ousted a dictator. “The association of the totalitarian push in Europe with the authoritarianism that the Mexican Revolution overturned is a natural association for people." [Rankin] This seems a bit iover the top as the PRI was anit a democratic institution. It was in many ways authoritarian, but did allow quasi-independeny=t constiuent elements to help mold policy.

Cooperation

Mexico and theUnited sttes cooperated in the World War II campzign aginst the Axis. The two countris signed agreements permiting unlimited reciprocal use of airfields and facilities. Mexico was able to participate in Lend-Lease. The U.S. Army Air Force established several bases in Mexico to train personnel. Solving the oil nationalization issue meant that U.S. petroleum technology and expertise become available ho the new national oil compamy.

Benefits to Mexico

Mexico benefitted from its supprt gor the United states. There were investment capital flowed into Mexico. Thus meant building factories for wartime prodyuction. The United States and Britain purchased Mexican oil. Technical experts helped expand impotant mining operations for copper, mercury, silver, and other metals. Loans helped stabilize the economy and expand industry. The United States Lend-Lease made military equipment and supplies available to Mexico. This allowed Mexico to modernize its military. Mexican workers were able to fill jobs in America and much higher wages tha were available in Mexico.

Benefits to the Allies

Mexico made two imprtant contributions to the war effort. First the country provided large quantities of critical raw materials. Mexican raw materials made a vital contribution to the American war economy. We have not yet found details on the materials Mexico sold to the United States, but they seens to ahve been very important. One author writes, " Mexico provided more strategic resources to the United States than any other Latin American nation, including vital minerals such as copper, zinc, mercury, cadmium, graphite and lead." [Pruitt] Syurely oil was the most important. Second Mexico provided needed labour through the Bracero Program. The expansion of manufacturing to build weapons and equioment drew workers from the farm economy. Mexican farm workers helped kept the American food chain moving. Large numbers of Mexicans, particularly those with relatives in the U.S. crossed the border seeking jobs. This was not possible earlier because so many Americans were unemployed. This change with the war. American suddenly had a labor shortage. Some 300,000 Mexican nationals legally worked in the United States during the War. The Bracero Program would continue for two decades after the War.

Military Participation

Mexico participated in the war both militarily and indirectly. First indirectly, some Mexicans who came to work in America elisted in the U.S. military. For many this meant the possibility of citizenship. Some 15,000 Mexican natiinals are believed to have served in the U.S. military. Many chose to become U.S. citizens, citizenship was basically automatic. After service in the military. Not all, however, remained in the United States. Second dfectly, Mexuco passed a Compulsory Military Service Law (August 1942). President Ávila had no intention of making a major combat effort. Over time the Government gradually changed its mind about at least a small combat effort. This was in part because President Ávila wanted to be involved in the post-War peace process. The Mexican military once it was clear that there would be no quick Axis victory, wanted some degree of involvement. President Ávila reportedly expressed a desire to lead the Mexican Army into combat, saying that only the Presidency was preventing this. [Lencheck] The President accepted a U.S. invitation to provide Mexican air force units in the war against Japan. Air units were the only fully modernized segment in the Mexican military, thanks to Lend Lease. Escadeon 201 equipped with Lend Lease Republic P-47D Thunderbolt fighter bombers was deployed first to the Philippines (February 1945) and then to Okinawa (July 1945). They flew 795 combat sorties ahd lost 7 pilots.

Mexican Economic Miracle

While left-wing elements wrote extensively as to how America was seeking to control and thus danmage the Mexican economy, Just the opposite occurred. In the days before the successes of the Asian Tigers were achieved, left wing authors were damaing participation in the world economy and foreign investment. But because of it, the Mexican economy grew as never before. With American aid and investment, the Mexico’s GDP nearly tripled in only 7 years (1940-46). The economy grew at an average rate of 6 percent annually (1940 and 1970). [Pruitt] There were complaints that poor did not benefit proportiinally from the economic growth. Inflation was a problem. [Minster] Left-wing authors in Latin Anerica for several decades after the War favored the Cuban model, ending foreign investment and cutting ties with the capitalist inernational economy. Then the failure if Cuban Communism and the success of the Asian Tigers became apparent. According to an author not always favorably disposed toward the United States, the foundation fo the Mexiucan Economic Miracle and the unprecedented growth were grounded firmly in Mexico’s participation in World War II and cooperation nwith the United States. "Mexico got a lot of aid from the United States to develop industries that were vital in helping to support the war, and those industries stayed once the war was over. There's a lot of infrastructure development and creation of industry that becomes a fundamental part of Mexico's economic growth in the second half of the 20th century that has its roots in World War II." [Rankin] Yet today the old saying is repeated, "Mexico: So close to the United States and so far from God." A great deal has been written about the German Economic Miracle and other post-War Eueopean economic miracles after World War II, but very little about the Mexican Economic Miracle. Perhaps the Mexican Miracle was moving the country from abject poverty to middle income levels. One ongoing issue is why there are no Latin America Tiger Economies to bring the region in line with Europe and the United States.

Sources

Lencheck, Shep. "Mexico: Rorgotten World War II ally," Mexconnect (January 1, 2001).

Minster, Christopher. "Mexican involvement in World War II: Mexico helped push the Allied powers overr the top," ThoughCo (August 5, 2019). Notice the title. While it is accurate, it is even more true that the Allies saved Mexico and its mestizo population from the horrors of an Axis victory. There is not one setence that addresses this.

Pruitt, Sarah. "The surprising role Mexico played in World War II," www.history.com (September 24, 2018).

Rankin, Monica. México, la patria : Propaganda and Orodyuctioin during World War II.

Created: 5:11 AM 2/15/2021
Last updated: 6:10 AM 11/7/2021