** war and social upheaval: World War II -- Italian home front








World War II: Italian Home Front


Figure 1.--.

Italy when Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini took the country to war was not a major industrial power. Much of he country, virtually the entire south had a largely an agriculural economy. As a result, the country did not have the industrial capacity to equip its military with first class weaponry, especially heavy weapns like tanks. Nor did the country have the industrial capacity to begin to fully motorize its army. Italy was first affected by the War as a result of the Allied naval blockade of Germany. Neutral countries (like Italy and Spain) were not allowed to import material in excess of their needs which might be shipped on to the Germans. Mussolini bragged about 8 million bayonets, but it took more than bayonets and rifles to win a war against modern industrial powers. Italy entered the War on one man's enthusism, Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini. There was not a great deal of public enthusiam for the War. On the other hand there was no resistance to the War. Italian civilans began to feel the impact of the War from a very early period. The first impact was war casualties and POWs. Then shortages began to appear. Rationimg became increasinly severe. Italy did not have a strong economy before the war. And the War placed serious constrauints on the ecomomy, mobilization reduced the civilian work force. Italy was not self sufficent in food production and British naval operations made it difficult to import food. Italy also was not self sufficent in energy (both coal and oil), creating further economic problens for civilians. With Axis failures North Africa, air strikes began on Italian cities, including Rome (1943). Major targets included rail marshaling yards which were usually located in city centers. Italy did not have the same industrial infastructure that the air campaign against Germany was comcentrated. Italians found themselves sitting in bomb sheters--if they were lucky. Few sich shelters existd, Italians had to seek shelter as best they could. There was no real opposition to the Fascist ledership until the Allies landed (September 1943). Unlike Germany, Italy as a peninsula was very vulnerable, especially when going to war against a naval power. Not only did Italy not have an adequate industrial base for the War, it like Germany was a resource poor country. Thus early on, shortages of raw material developed, affecting production. In addition, drafting millions of soldiers affected the work force. This was especially the case of the agricultural sector. Italian agriculture was not significantly mechanized. Thus agricultural production fell, creating food shortages which by the time of the Allied invasion were becoming severe. The black market grew in imprtance and cwas often the only way to obtain needed food in the cities. As the war progressed, it became increasingly difficult to survive on rationed food stuffs, even if they could be found in the shops. Unlike the Germans, the Italians did not bring in forced laborers. There were also problems created with northern and southern Italy were sparated during the Italian campaign (1943-45). The Allies helped feed the liberated south. Conditions deteriorated in the German-occupied north.

Politics

The NAZIs when they seized control of Germany, were not a majority party, but they were the largest political party in Germany with some right-wing allies. They were a minority party, but with a substantial, fervent following. The Fascist Party in Italy was an even smaller party than the NAZI Party and never approavched the NAZIs in the level of popular support. The Fascists only dominated Italian politics by the March on Rome with a small number of Black Shirts. Inlike the NAZIs they were not a nmakor political party. Then they began murdering oposition figures and outlawing other parties. Mussolini was a forceful leader and attracted some support, but he never had a hold on the Italian people like Hitler was able to forge in Germany. Thus after entering the War, the Italians experiences one loss after another. The battlegfield performance of the Italian Army was in poart an indicator of the lack of commument by the Itlainan people to Fascism. Fascist propaganda attempted to hide the battlefield losses, but what could not be hidden was was food shortages and the deteriorating living conditions as well as the Allied bombing. Mussolini's popularity plummeted and was duinally even renoved by the Fascist Grand Couincil. The difference between the NAZIs and Fascists became manifest at the end of the War. Of course Mussolini's body was strug up in a Milan Plaza which the Fascists had previously used to display dead bodies of anti-Fascists. Vengeful mobs or kanagaroo courts executed some 30,000 Fascists (estimates vary), mostly in northern Italy where the Facists with German support made their last stand. The Partisans were involved in this, but it was not all their work. In Germany there were no vengeful mobs killing NAZIs. Most NAZIs were blended into post-War society. The De-NAZIfication effort was conducted by the Allies, not the German Government. Many Grmans at the time saw the process as vengeful Allied actions.

Economy

Italy when Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini took the country to war (June 10. 1940). Italy was not a major industrial power. He thought the war had already been won, and not much of a military or economic effort would be required. France was laready largely defeated and Britain seemed on its last legs. Then Mussolini has to follow Hitler when after Pearl Harbor (December 1941). This sdhicked many nItakians as they had such faviravle views of Aerica. It was also damaging economically. A nillion itlainas lived in Ameruca and mamy thy sent home was a valuable soiyrce of fireign exchange. Much of he country, virtually the entire south had a largely an agriculural economy. As a result, the country did not have the industrial capacity to equip its military with first class weaponry, especially heavy weapns like tanks. Nor did the country have the industrial capacity to begin to fully motorize its army. Mussolini bragged about 8 million bayonets, but it took more than bayonets and rifles to win a war against modern industrial powers. Unlike the Germans, the Italians did not bring in forced laborers.

Food

Italy like Germany was not self-sufficent in food production. Unlike Germny, Fasscist Italy had nearly two decades to rectify the situation. And unlike Germany there were serious inefficiecies in the agricultural system to be rectified. The German plan was basically to seized food from occupied countries--essentilally to export hunger. Which of course was useful in another primary German goal, basically to muder 10s of millions racially 'undesirable' people in, primarily in Eastrer Europe as part of Genreralplan Ost. Mussolini's Fascist Goverment set out to improve the agicultural production. At the time that Mussolini seized power about 25 percent of Italy's purchases of imported goods and services went foe wheat. That was not a situation conducive for a country preparing to build a sizble military and empire wanted. So food self suffiency becasme an important goal. The country's agricultural sector was exptremely weak, productivity was low with large numbers of landless agricultural workers living in extreme poverty, especially in southern Italy. Solving the agricultural problem was necessary to free up foreign exchnge and promote industrial development. [Nützenadel, p. 88-89.] This was the key to real military poweer. And soon after seizing power, Mussolni launched the Battle for Grain (July 1925). Given the importance of bread and pasta in the Itlalian diet, this was very important effort. This became an important step in the new Fascist economy. This involved education, mechanization, fertilizers, higher yielding wheat varitiesm, and irrigation. The Fascists did not address land ownership patterns. Another part of this was he Battle for Land. The most prominent propject here was the reclamation of the Poitine marshes south of Rome. This was a problem existing since Roman times. And there were real achiervements. Wheat harvests increased by 40 percent. This substantially reduced the cost of food imports. Domestic harvestsd, however did not fully replace imports and percapita wheat consunotion declined by 14 kilograms. [Corner, p. 253.] This was the situation at the time Mussolini that war cluds began to appear in Europe. Mussolini ordered an invasion of Ethiopia, the first step in expanding the Empire (1935). The League of Nations decided on a largely ineffectual embargo. Britain could have stopped the invasion by closing the Suez Canal or enbargoing oil shipmnts. It decided not to, hoping to use Mussolini to moderate Hitler. The League embargo thus did not amount to much. With the war, real restrictions came (June 1940). Heavy rationing of foods such as meats, butter, and cereals began. Drafting millions of soldiers for the War affected both the work force and production. This was especially the case of the agricultural sector which was not yet significantly mechanized. Agricultural production fell, creating food shortages which by the time of the Allied invasion were becoming severe. People on farms made out better than people on the cities. Fruits, vegetables, cereals, and meat were more easily available in the countryside, and they were often simply exchanged among families rather than bought. City resodents had nothing to barter. A major problem as transport the war affected the ability of getting the dwindling food supplies into the cities. One meaure adopted by the Government was the 'orti di guerra' (war orchards). Areas of city parks and sports field were turned overr to growing vegetables. Of course this was only a panacea and could not begin to supply what was needed.

Black Market

The black market grew in imprtance and was often the only way to obtain needed food in the cities. As the war progressed, it became increasingly diffivult to survive on rationed food stuffs, even if they ciould be found in the shops.

Allied Naval Blockade

Italy was first affected by the War as a result of the Allied naval blockade of Germany. Neutral countries (like Italy and Spain) were not allowed to import material in excess of their needs which might be shipped on to the Germans. Italy entered the War on one man's enthusism, Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini. This brought a total naval blockade and the destruction of much of the the Italiam Navy merchant marine. There was hope that without the French Navy, that the outgunned Rioyal Navy Mediterranean squadron could be defeated by the substantial Italian Navy. In a series of fierce naval battles (1940-41), the Italian Nvay wa decisively defeated. This not only prevented the Italins from importing food and fuel, it meant that much of the supplied fot Rommel's Afrika Korps rested on the bottom of the Mediterranean.

Religion

Italy is a largely Catholic country and of course the Papacy is located in the heart of Rome. Italy was finally unified from the many principalities that were formed during the medieval prtoiod (1861). It should be understood that from the very start of the existence of a unified Italalian nation (1861), there has been a tension between the new Italian state and the Church. The papacy supported by the French in fact resisted Itlaian unifucation because of the Papal States. And while most Itaians were at least nominally Catholic, there was also a great deal of Socialist support in Italy with the standard Marxist anti-clerical bent. After World War I and the Russian Revolution, Communism becomes a factor. Fascism was in fact a form of of Socialism. The poverty of the south and the the Communist domimnated lanor mocement of the north were factors. Rome only becomes the capital of the Kingdom of Italy after Prissia defeats France in the Franco Prussian War (1871). The pope becomes a kind of hostage of the Italian state deterrmined to be a secular state. The Papacy became isolated in the Vatican. Pope Pius XI becomes pope as Mussolimi and the Fascists rise to power (1922). The Fascists esclated the seculzarization campaign against the Church. Sime Catholic achools awere seized, and practicing Catholics were denined advances and impoortabt posts. Thid gradually wained and a Concordot was signed with the the Church. Historians are nnot sure jusdt why Missolini chnged his mind, bu Itsly was fractured slong so many lines, the Church was a rare unifying force. The Church was the one Italian institution not complelely coopted by the Fascists. The Church for its part basically agreed not to question Fascist rule. Pius XII became pope (1939). As in World War I, the Papacy in World war II was obstensibly neutral, although involved in various pro-llied intrigues, alrgely bcuse of its inherent oppoition to NAZI brutality. The Fascisr Party did not pursue anti-Semtiusm until Hitler forced it in Mussolini -- The Maifesto of Race (1938). At that time a new kaw stripped Jews od thgeir citizebship. Jews were prohibited from holding pubkic office, marrying Aryans, or owning land. Other restrictions followed. When the Germans jnvaded, the sutyauion turned deadly (September 1943). Unlike many other countries, many Itlalian Jews surviced the Holocaust because most Italians would not cooperate with the Germans.

Destruction of the Mafia

The Faxists upon seizing power mase war on the Mafis (2924-29). The Mafia on Sicvily was all but destoyed by a incdably brutl poice actguin, There were masss xarrests, executuind, torture, abd deportations. Some left fir America. Only with chaos of war beginning wih invasuon of Sicily (July 1943), did the Mafia begin to recover.

Public Opinion

There was not a great deal of public enthusiam for the War. Mny Italians could not understand why they were fighting the British and French and even more mistifying the Anericans. After the American Civil War, Europeans began emmigrting to America in large numbers and the Italians became the largest national immigrant group. And there was one especially destinctive aspect of Italain immigration. An unusually large numbers returned to Italy. This was nit because they failed in America, but rather because cthrey succeeded. Theu reyrned with enough money to set up busineess back home. Some immigrated and returned more than once. Many Italians who sayed remitted money back home. This became an important source of incomr for Italy. While there was no enthusuasm for the war, there was also no real resistance to it, although the lack of enthusim showed up in the performance of the Italian Army.

Knowledge of the War

Freedom of press ended with the very inception of the Fascist ruke (1923). The Ministry of Propaganda controlled what was published or said on the radio. But unlike the Grmnds there weere no great victories to report. The urban middle class may have been affevcted by Fascist propganda, this does not seem to be the case for the great bul of the Otaloin popltion, peasant abd unsulld lborors. And unlike the Germns there were no great victories to reportt, only a strady stream od=f diusasters specially after El Alemein and Stalinghrad (Octobedr-November 1942). And as food supplies declined and Allied bombing begn, there was no doubt in yhe public mind bout where the war was headed. Propaganda can manipulate public opinion, but Mussolomi had to give his prppagandusts something to work with. He was unable to do so. The letters written by soldiers was one siurce of inforntion bout the War. from the front to their families. They ewere inspected by censorship officers and areas blacked out. Military secrets were not the oroblem. The censors were mostly looking for 'non-constructive' comments bout th Fascist Prty that might affect public opinion negatively.

Initial Civilan Impact

Italian civilans began to feel the impact of the War from a very early period. The first impact was war casualties and POWs. Then shortages began to appear. Rationimg became increasinly severe. Italy did not have a strong economy before the war. And the War placed serious constrauints on the ecomomy, mobilization reduced the civilian work force. Italy was not self sufficent in food production and British naval operations made it difficult to import food. Italy also was not self sufficent in energy (both coal and oil), creating further economic problens for civilians.

Military Failures (1940-43)

Italy's only military success was actually the seizure of Albania a few months before Hitler and Stalin launch World War II (1939). Albania did nit have a substantial armt= abd did not resist. After entering World War II, the history of Itlaina arms despite Mussolini's pompus boasrs was one series of failures after another. While German armies were pouring into France, an Italian offensice in the south was repulsed by the French--an inauspicious start (June 1940). The Italian invasion of Greece was repunsed by the Greeks (October 1940). This was followed by the invasion of British Egypt which was stopped and themn overwealmed by a small British force. In bith Greece and Egupt, the Italuna had to be rescued by the Germans (March-April 1941). They are unable resue the Ilaians in East Africa. While this was going on, the Italian Navy conducted a series of sea battles in the Mediterranra, but was decisecly defeated by the numerically inferior British Royal Navy. This meant that it became difficult to adequatly supply the German Italian Afrika Korps. The Afrika Korps was shattered at El Alaemein, the lack of supplies being a major factor (October 1942). Mussolini had sent a large expeditionary force east to assist in invasion of the Soviet Union. This force was uterly destoyed at Stalingrad (November 1942). As the Allies gained ground in North Aftrica, new bases allowed them to begin bombing targets in Italy. The remanents of the German and Italian forces in North Africa surrendered in Tunisian (May 1943). Italian forces in Sicily largely refused to fight when the Allies invaded (July 1943). For a country that had no real interest in entering the War or figting the British (Austrians/Germans) had been the traditiional ememy), the litiny of military ddefeats proved disastetous for Mussolini. The Fascist Grand Council arrested Mussoilini. Finally the Itaians surrendered to the Allies and switched sides in the War when the Allies invaded (September 1943).

Allied Bombing

With Axis failures North Africa, air strikes began on Italian cities, including Rome (1943). Major targets included rail marshaling yards which were usually located in city centers. I The major focus of the momnving was to interdict the flow of supplies south. Tgis was while Italy was a beligerant and after the German seized contril (September 1943). Italy did not have the same industrial infastructure that the air campaign against Germany was comcentrated. Italians found themselves sitting in bomb sheters--if they were lucky. Few such shelters existd, Italians had to seek shelter as best they could. Naples as a port was especilly bomned heavily. Mostvo Italy;s industry was in yhe noth and kargeky survived the War.

Resistance

There was no real opposition to the Fascist ledership until the Allies landed (September 1943). Unlike Germany, Italy as a peninsula was very vulnerable, especially when going to war against a naval power.

Natural Resources

Not only did Italy not have an adequate industrial base for the War, it like Germany was a resource poor country. Thus early on, shortages of raw material developed, affecting production. This was especilaly true for oil.

North and South

There were also problems created with northern and southern Italy were sparated during the Italian campaign (1943-45). Th Allies helped feed the liberated south. Conditions deterirated in the German-occupied north.

Demographics

The major regions of Itasly has more than geographic interest. The geography affects the country in various ways, including the culture, economy, eduction, ethnicity, and language. What anyone studying Italy must understand is incredably diversity peavalent in Italy until after World War II. This was not just the case of Italy, although, espdecially true of gthe country, but geneally the case pf European countries. Europeans are aware of thid, but not well understood in America. Italian as we understand it today was not all that common in Italy. Modern Italian came from Florence and was spoken byte Italian educzted elite. By the time of World War II, a villager from northern Italy would still have had trouble speaking with a peasant from southern Italy. One American-Italian describes the situation pointing out that northern Italy had the strongest economy with most of the country's industry. It was haeavily influenced by Western Europe (France and Austria/Germany). Central Italy was domnated bt Rome a case by it self. Anruzzo just south of Rome had little economic activity. Italy's largest national park was located there, in part because much of the land was not suitable for agriculture. The south was the poorest region, in some areas almost feudal. The ecomomy was krgely agricultural and the overworked field reporting poor yields. One observer describes the sititaion at the time of World War II. "In the 1930s and 40s about 80 percent pr 70-80 percent of Italians fell ino the class of perasants and common labirors. Education was very low. Literacy rates in the 20s and 30s and World War II was the lowest in Western Europe. Outside the major cities, people do not have electricity. Outside the major cities and even in them people in some neignorhoods do not have inside pluming." [Dimarco] This author goes on to nsecribe ba country with apiopularion of mostly peasants and unskilled workers estraigned from a well-educated urban middle-class. They fragmented, culturally, soially, and even linguistically. The uneuducated peasent class spoke a range of local dialects that ewere not mutually understandable. Unlike Germany, the Italy that Mussolini took to war was a deeply divided country with no common sence of natioal purpose. [Dimarco]

Source

Corner, Paul. ":Fascist agrarian policy and the Itlaian economy in the inter-war years, " in John A. Davis, ed. Gramsci and Italy's Passive Revolution (Croom Helm: London, 1979), pp. 239-74.

Dimarco, Louis A. "The Italian Home Front in World War II," Presentation at the Dole Institute (September 6, 2018). Dimarco goes in to describe Italy's the poor infrastruture.

Nützenadel, Alexander. "Dictating food: Autarky , food privision, and consumer politics in Fascist Iutaly, 1922-1943," in Frank Trentmann and Flemming Jisr, eds. Food and Conflict in Europe in the Age of the Two World Wars (Palgrave MacMillan: Basingstoke, 2006), pp. 88-1108.







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Created: 5:20 AM 3/23/2021
Last updated: 1:09 PM 10/10/2021