*** war and social upheaval: World War II -- the Holocaust in Turkey








The Holocaust in Turkey


Figure 1.--

Turkey after the NAZIs seized power in Germany (1933) offered refugee to Jewish university professors and scholars, mostly scientists. The country at the time was laying the foundation for a modern university system and the refugee Jewish scholars played an important role in that undertaking. Turkey subsequently played a role in saving thousands of European Jews from the NAZIs. Turkey remained neutral most of the War. Both sides made extensive diplomatic efforts to draw Turkey into the War. NAZI diplomats thought they had succeeded, but the Soviet victory at Stalingrad ended any possbility of Turkey joining the Axis. The Turks allowed the passage of thousands of Jewish refugees to Palestine at a time that Both the Germans and British attempted to prevent this. The Turks also protected its Jewish citizes and attempted to resuce Turkish Jewsin the occupied countries. They succeed in saving 3,000 of the 10,000 Tukish Jews in France and several hundred in Greece. As many as 100,000 Jews may have been saved by the Turks. [Shaw] The Struma incident suggests that the Turkish policy as to non-Turkish refugeees was essentially passive (1941-42). The Turks did, however, allow Istanbul to be used by Jewish Agency and by other Jewish organizations established to assist and rescue East European Jews fleeing the Holocaust. Turkish Authorities allowed eefuges without passports or visas to enter the country. I'm not sure, however, how many were allowed to stay in Turkey. Authorities also allowed ships carrying refugees to pass through its coastal waters. Individual Turkish diplomats also helped save Jews. Turkish diplomats even issue false papers to Jews in NAZI-occupied areas. Turkish Consul Selahattin Ulkumen on the Greek island of Rhodes arrived at about the same time as the NAZI occupation force (1941). When the NAZIs began rounding up Jews on the island, he intervened maintaing that some were Turkish citizens. He helped save 32 Jews, but his pregnant wife was killed in the process. He was then rescue 32 Jews from the island's Jewish community, but ultimately led to his wife's death. The NAZIs deported Ulkumen to Piraeus where he spent the rest of the War in jail. The Apostolic Delegate in Turkey, Archbishop Roncalli (who became Pope John XXIII) attempted to rescue Hungarian Jews.

Turkish Jews

There is a long history of Jewish presence in what is modern Turkey. Some of that history is more lengend than history. Important Biblical figures, beginning with Abraham, appear to have come from Anatolia. This of course was the location of Mount Arafat where the Noah's Ark found land. A Jewish presence was noted during the Persian, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine periods. A great deal of information is available on Jews in the Ottoman Empire. Ashkenazi Jews migrating to the Byzantine Empire and Ottoman Empire mixing with the original Jewish population. During the Ottoman era Sephardic Jewish refugees exiled from Spain came to dominate the Ottoman Jewish community. They were welcomed by the Ottoman Sultan and played an important role in Ottoman life. The tolerance of the Ottoman Empire was in sharp contrast to the persecution they experienced in Christendom. The Turkish Republic founded after World War I adopted secular policies and continued tolerant policies toward the countries Jews. This tolerant approach was in sharp contrast, however, to the Young Turks Genocide of the Armenians.

Assimilation

While there was no Holocaust in Turkey, Turkish Jews were concerned with the rise of anti-Semitism in Europe. TYhe were aware of the Armrenian Genocide (1915. And the new Turkish Republic launched program of assimlation. Many Turkish Jews with their long histotry of persecultion decided it was best to comply. Turkish Jews widely spoke Landino (Judeo-Spanish). is a this time that many Turkish Jewish families adopted Turkish and saw to it that their children spoke Turkish as their first languge. Children in many Jewish families at the time grew up only recognizing few wotrds of Ladino. [Altaras] This was basically the nationalist and racist policies of the Turkish Republic. Hüseyin Nihâl Atsız was an influential ultranationalist writer, novelist, and poet as well as a self-identified racist and Pan-Turkist. [Landau, p. 94.] He not only wanted to supres Jews, but critiised President İsmet İnönü nd his Government for being too willing to cooperte with the Communists. He was sympathic with the NAZIs, but moved away from that after the NAZIs lost the War. Atsız and many other Turks believed that all citizens of Turkey should speak Turklish. The Government adopted a range of policies to support this.

World War II

The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers and fought with Germany during World war I. As a result it was one of the great European empires that were destroyed by the War. Modern Turkey emerged after the War. Turkey remained neutral in World War II. Although often given little attention in World War II histories, this was of major importance in the outcome of the War. Germany's most significant weakness was oil. Turkey would have provided a significant threat to the Soviet Caucasian oil fields and would have provided an important ally to the Germans in their 1942 southern offensive. Turkey almost certainly could have seized the oil fields in Iraq that supplied the Royal Navy in the Mediterranean and the 8th Army in Egypt. Hitler was very interesting in drawing Turkey into the War. And as a World War I ally, there were links. The Germans also had a great deal to offer the Turks, especially the Pan-Turkic nationalists. The Wehrmacht entered the northern Caucausus (July 1942). This provided considerable opportunity to appeal to the Pan-Turic nationalists. The Germans thought they had convinced to enter the War. Here we are not sure, but the disaster at Stalingrad cerainly settled the issue. Churchill also worked hard on getting Turkey to join the Allies. Just before Barbarossa Turkey signed a Friendship Treaty with Germany (June 18, 1941). A joint statement following the signing indicated a desire for further economic cooperation. The Germans in particular were interested in Turkish chrominum ore. The Turks promised to cooperate with the Germans to close the straits to Soviet shipping. In the end, however, Turkey wisely remained neutral and remained neutral most of the War. Both the NAZI and allies sides made extensive diplomatic efforts to draw Turkey into the War. NAZI diplomats thought they had succeeded, but the Soviet victory at Stalingrad ended any possbility of Turkey joining the Axis.

Jewish Refugees

Turkey subsequently played a role in saving thousands of European Jews from the NAZIs. As many as 100,000 Jews may have been saved by the Turks. This was largely passive. The Govrnmnt prohibited the erntry of Jewiosh refugees, but it did allow shiops with refugees to pass through Turkisd waters. There was an exception to the ban on entry visas. This involved offering work permits to Jewish scientists and university profesors willing to work with Turkish government offices and teach in unversities. Many were Germans disnissed by the NAZIs fron universities. Unlike many countries, the Turks attempoted rescue Turkish Jews captured by the NAZI in occupied Europe during the War.

Refugees

The Turkish Government before World War II times Turkish government issued a decree prohibiting the issuance of entry visas to Jews fleeing NAZI oppression. [Bali] An exception was made for Jewish academics. The Turks allowed the passage of thousands of Jewish refugees to Palestine at a time that Both the Germans and British attempted to prevent this. The Turks also protected its Jewish citizes and attempted to resuce Turkish Jews in the occupied countries. The Struma incident suggests that the Turkish policy as to non-Turkish refugeees was essentially passive (1941-42). Struma carryed 769 Jewish refugees from Romania reached Istambul. It was in such poor shape it could not sail further. The Turks refused to grant landing or entrance permits. The Turkish Navy towed it back into the Black Sea where it was sunk, probably by a Soviet submarine. There was only one survivor. The Turks did, however, allow Istanbul to be used by Jewish Agency and by other Jewish organizations established to assist and rescue East European Jews fleeing the Holocaust. Turkish Authorities allowed refugees without passports or visas to enter the country. We are not sure, however, how many were allowed to stay in Turkey. Authorities also allowed ships carrying refugees to pass through its coastal waters.

Turkish universities

Turkish universities like other universities and educational institutions throughout the Muslim world were virtually medieval facilities, largely devoted to Islamic studies. The Ottoman Government did not have a modrern public health system. Out side the mjopr cities there was virtually nothing along the line of a public helth infrastructure or commonly access to a competent doctor. This was in part the very limited Ottoman medical and scientific capabilities. The Ottoman Empire did not begin to develop a modern university system until the 19th century. It modelled its public university system after the Grandes Ecoles of France, but this pnly began in the late late-19th century,. The such institution was the Darülfünun-ı şahane (now Istanbul University). Medicasl schools were founded somewhat earlier, but not much. Students interested in an advanced technical edication, commonly studies abroad. President Kemal Attaturk as part of his moderinaztion effort founded a new modern, secular educational system. Part of that effort was to create a modern university system. The NAZIs seized power in Germany (1933). One of their first actions was to dimiss Jews from the civil service. They also began firing or forceing Jews out of universities and research institutes. In response Austrian-born Dr. Phillip Schwartz, founded the Notgemeinschaft deutscher Wissenschafter im Ausland (Emergency Organization for German Scientists Abroad) in Switzerland. He worked with the Genevese professor A. Malche. Dr. Malche began working with the Turkish Government to help modernize Turkish universities (1932). Jewish university professors without jobs and fearful of their future in Germany were looking for jobs abroad. This lead to an agreement between the Turkish Minister of Education ( Minister Resit Galip) and the Emergency Organization (Fr. Phillip Schwartz) concerning the appointment of German and Austrian university professors in Turkey. Turkey thus offered refugee to Jewish university professors and scholars, mostly scientists. These Jewish professors thus helped lay the foundation for a modern Turkish university system. [Shaw] An estimated 200 German academic exiles emigrate to Turkey in the 1930s. About two-thirds were Jews. Many of the others were anti-NAZIs. They brought their wives and children with them. While 200 professors may not sound like a large number, they had a major impact on the relatively small Turkish university system at the time. Many Turkish scientists, basically the country's first generation of vientists, today recall their German Jewish teachers who found refuge in Turkey.

Turkish public health

The Ottomons did not have the scientific capacity for a modern public health system. The disaster of Word War I set a wide range of reforms in motion. A new ministry, the Ministry for Medical and Social Service was founded (May 1920). The Ministry had authority over both health issues nd ommoigration. The ptimary concern was infectous disease. This was a complicated time, before the enend of the Orroman Emnpire abd the befinning oif the Turkish Republic. This began to hange wiyh the Lausanne Conference and the founding of the Turkish Republic (1923). The Medical Care Supreme Council of Istanbul was abolished. The Turkish Republic sought extend the state's medical competence and eddorts. The problem was there were so few Turkish scientistrs and docrors with advanced degrees. The Repoublic founded new schools and courses to increase the number of coo[entent medical staff that could be provide in areas lacling in medical servics. The Obligatory Service Law of 1923, doctors who were sent to eastern Turkey where medical servies were especially lacking. Dr. Refik Saydam was appointd Minister for Health (1925). He made progress in many areas, especially with infectous disease. Laws andregulations enpowered the Ministry, especislly to deal with malaria, syphilis, and trachoma. The Turkish National Congresses on Medicine addressed the nation's health problems and influenced both the state's policy and the Health Ministry's activities. The state began to privide medical treatment of the poor and the old, children, and pregnant women. Major problems included Islam, uneducated omen, and the lack of of scientific personnel with advanced degrees. The saantuary given to Jewish doctors and univerity professors fleeing NAZI persecution significantly increased the technical quality of the gradutes of Turkish univerities. In addition, Jewish doctos played an imprtant role in the Turkish Republic's health and social reforms. This included the campaign for healthy children, a drive for basic health and hygiene education. Dr. Albert Eckstein was an internationally recognized expert on children's health played and played an especilly important role. He was medical superintendent of the Children’s Hospital at the Academy of Medicine in Dusseldorf until dismissed by the NAZIs (1935). H he accepted an offer from the Turkish University for a chair in Ankara. He left a fasinating photographic record of his work in Turkey. He was the perfect man for the job. He developed an analysis of infant and child healthcare, not just in Istanbul and Ankara, but including rural areas as well. Eckstein worked in Turkry (1935-39), undertaking a medical survey of maternal fertility and infant mortality. areas that had been neglcted by the Ottomns and even Republic officils because of the conservative Islamic clergy.

Turkish Jews in occupied areas

Some Jews in occupied Europe were foreigners. Many were citizens of coutries occupied by the Germans or at war with Germany. Other were citizens of neutral countries. Many of these countries such as Argentina made no effort to rescue their citizens even when prompted by the German Foreign Ministry. Foreign Minister Ribentrop sought to gain some advantage using the foreign Jews. For the most part these foreign Jews were scattered numbers spread across Europe. Thelathest mumber of foreign Jews were Turkish Jews in France. There were an estimated 10,000 such individuals. Many had been there fir some time and had lost contact with Turkey and had become French citizens. They could retain Turkish citizens simply by periodically registering at Turkish consulate. After the fall of France (June 1940), the value of a Turkish passport soon became apparent. Turkey claims never descriminated on the basis of religon in its efforts to assist its citizens. At first this was a matter of protecting property Vichy and German officials were seizing. Turkey reprtedly threatened to seize the property of French citizens in Turkey. Turkey also reportedly complained when Vichy and German officils requird Turkish citizns to wear Jewish stars (1942), although we can not yet confirm this. We have seen varying reports of Turkish policy. We notice individual Turkish diplomts taking extrodinary action to save Jews. The polivy of vth Turkish Foreign Ministry is less clear. By 1942 this was no long a question of property, but a matter of life and death. Turkish Jews were among the Jews caught up in NAZI/Vichy sweeps. Necdet Kent, the Turkish consul in Marseille, upon hearing of Turkish Jews being transported, rushed to the train station. He argued with the German SS officer in charge and when this proceed fruitless he boarded with the Jews. The SS officer ordered him off the train, but he refused. The box car was closed and the train headed morth. Somehow German Foreign Ministry learned of the incident. Such was the importance of relations with Turkey that the train was stoppoed while till in France. Appolgies were issued and the diplomat was allowed to take 'your people' off the train with no documents being checked. Transport was provided to take the Jews back to Marsailles. Turkish diplomats succeed in saving 3,000 of the 10,000 Tukish Jews in France. (Here we have noted a variety of different estimsates.) One report suggess that Turkish diplomats threatened to break relations with Vichy if they deported the Turkish Jews. German and Vichy authorities eventually made it clear that they would no longer make any exceptions protecting Turkish citizens. There were announcements in newspapers. Turkish Jews had to leave France. The problem was getting the endangered Jews back to Turkey. Sea transit of the Mediterranean was impossible ncause of naval engagements. Balkan regimes resisted efforts to send trainloads of Jews. [Shaw] Turkish diplomats also saved several hundred Greek Jews. [Shaw] Individual Turkish diplomats also helped save Jews. Turkish diplomats even issued false papers to Jews in NAZI-occupied areas. Turkish Consul Selahattin Ulkumen on the Italian island of Rhodes. The Italians had taken no action against the Jews on the island. When the Germans seized Rhodea, repression of the Jews began, a few of whom were Turkish citizens (Septenmbr 1943). The Gestapo began rounding up Jews on the island for deportation (July 1944). Ulkumen he intervened maintaing that some were Turkish citizens. He helped save 32 Jews and their families, but his pregnant wife was killed in asundequent Germasn bomb sttemp. e was then rescue 32 Jews from the island's Jewish community. The NAZIs deported Ulkumen to Piraeus where he spent the rest of the War in jail. Times have changed in Turkey. Islamicists in Turkey are today joining the Holocaust deniers in the Arab world. We note historians claim that Turkish sources have exagerated the role of the Turkish Government in saving Jews. When NAZI offivials encouraged neutral countries to repatriate their Jewish citizens, Turkish diplomats received instructions to avoid repatriating Jews even if they had could prove their Turkish nationality. [Baer] TheGerman Foreugn Mimistry reportelybprovioded helpful guuidnce on how this copuld be accomplidhed. Historians estimate that Turkey denaturalized 3,000 to 5,000 Jews living abroad. Some 2,200-2,500 Turkish Jews were deported to deasth camps, many to Auschwitz and Sobibor and small numbers interned in concentration camps.

Archbishop Roncalli

The Apostolic Delegate in Turkey, Archbishop Roncalli (who would become Pope John XXIII) attempted to assit Hungarian Jews. He convinced the the Sisters of Sion order of nuns to use their network in Eastern Europe to assit the Jewish Agency pass messages, clothing and food to Jews to Hungarian Jews. Other Vatican couriers going from Istanbul to Eastern Europe did the same at Roncalli's urging. He sent false Certificates of Conversion to Hungarian Jews to help save the Hungarian Jews. [Shaw]

Blood for Goods (1944)

With the Red Army nearing Hungary, Admiral Horthy secretly prepares to make peace with the Allies. Hitler to prevent this seizes his forer ally (March 1944). Horthy and stopped the deportment of Hungarian Jews. Thus they were the last large group of Jews that had survived in NAZI-controlled Europe. Eichmann iimediately went to Hungary to organize the deportation of Hungarian Jews. Eichmann offered the infamous "Blood for Goods" arrangement to proposal to Hungarian Jew Joel Brand (April 25, 1944). Brand attempted to travel to Turkey to obtain 10,000 trucks and other goods in exchange for the 1 million Jews offered by Eichmann. It is unknown to this day what the purpose of this offer was or if it was genuine. The best explanation is probably that it could have split the Allies because Stalin would have been furious with the Allies supplying the NAZIs. Brand was, however, arrested by suspicious British authorities in Cairo and is unable to reach Turkey. Brand's wife met with Eichmann when her husbands failed to return to Hungary. Eichmann told her to cable her husband and tell him that, "If he doesn't come back at once I'll put the mills of Auschwitz in motion." And true to his word, he overseas the large-scale deportment to Auschwitz (May-July 1944).

Israel

The British after World War II attempted to prevent Jewish refugees from reaching Palestine. The Turkish Government placed no restrictions on Turkish Jews desiring to emigrate to Palestine or later Israel. There are today about 100,000 Jews of Turkish ancestry in Israel. Most of the Turkish Jews emmigrated to Israel did so in the 1940s. Unlike Jews coming from Arab countries, Turking Jews were not fleeing oppression and persecution.

Modern Islamicists

A well-financed book published in Istabul during 1997 entitled Soykirim Yalani ("Holocaust Deception") perpetrates the preposperous charge of Zionist collaboration in the Holocaust.

Sources

Altaras, Nesi. "Sephardic Jews in Turkey were told to assimilate. Today’s generation is reclaiming its identity through the Ladino language," The Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies

Baer, Marc D. (2020). Sultanic Saviors and Tolerant Turks: Writing Ottoman Jewish History, Denying the Armenian Genocide (Indiana University Press: 2020).

Bali, R. Cumhuriyet Yillarinda Turkiye Yahudileri: Bir Turklestirme Seruveni (1923-1945) (Iletisim Yayinlari: Istanbul, 2003).

Landau, Jacob M. (1981). Pan-Turkism in Turkey>/i>. (London: C. Hurst & Company, 1981).

Shaw, Stanford J. Turkey and the Holocaust: Turkey's Role in Rescuing Turkish and European Jewry from Nazi Persecution, 1933-1945.






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Created: 7:51 PM 7/13/2007
Last updated: 2:07 AM 4/30/2022