Figure 1.--Here we see a Gypsy mother and her children photographed by a German soldier and her children somewhere in the Soviet Union, probably bout September 1941. It may be the Ukraine because the photograph was offered by adealer in the Ukraine. It is likely that they were turned over to the Eisatzgruppen and shot.

We are not sure to what extent the SS rounded up Gypsies in German-occupied countries and transported them to death camps. As far as we can tell, there was a less intense effort to do this than was the case of Jews, but there were killings of foreign Gypsies who fell into their hands. This is a topic that we have not yet pursued in detail. We do not that most of the Gypsies in Austria and Germny were killed. And in those occupied countries with small Gypsey popultions, most were also killed. The process varied from country to country. Axis allies Hungary and Romania, both with substantial Gypsey populations, were special cases. German Einsatzgruppen as part of the Barbarossa invasion of the Soviet Union murdered most of the Gypseys they encountered, but because the NKVD before the War had deported so many Soviet Gysseys to Siberia, many survived. Most Italian Gypsey survived. There was no major Italian Fascist action aginst Gypseys.

Austria

After the Anschluss (March 1937), the NAZIs began targeting Austrian Gypsies for sterilization or extermination. Inspient anti-semitism in Germany was expanded and intensified by the NAZIs as a primary policy. In the case of the Gypsies, persecution appears to have developed as result from local demands as well as an outgrowth of NAZI racial policies. [Lewy] NAZI authorities commonly say the Nuremberg Laws as applying to Gypsies as well as Jews. Thus with the Anscluss the force of NAZI fell upon the small Austria Gypsey community. The fate of Austrian Gysies becomes intwined with that of German Gypsies. NAZI authorities issued a decree on 'crime prevention' (December 1937). Because of their reputation for criminality, this provided the kegaljustification for arresting may Gypsies before an organized program was developed. Deportations began soon after. An estimated 1,000 Gypies were transported to concentration camps at Buchenwald, Dachau, Sachsenhausen, and Lichtenburg (a female camp) (June 1938). The next year more Gypsies were transported to the Mauthausen, Ravensbrück, Dachau, and Buchenwald concentration camps (1939). Treatment as well as identification varied. Gypsies werecgenerally given the black triangular patches identifying 'asocials' or the green pstches for professional criminals. A few were given the Z patch. NAZI authorities set up two special internment camps for Gypsies in Austria. One for 80-400 people was estalished near Salzburg (October 1939). A larger camp for 4,000 people was opened near Lackenbach in the Burgenland (November 1940). This was the eastern Austrian state bordering Hungary where manhy Austrian Gypsies lived. This was not a temprary camp, but was mainjtained theougout the War. Conditions were especially bad there. While it was not a death camp, conditions were so bad that many died there. The camps were used for forced labor as well as to concentrate Austrian Gysies for eventual deportation to the NAZI concentration and death camps in Poland. Sone were deported to occupied Yugoslavia. More than half of the Austrian Gypsies were arrested and deported to concentration camps or other places of detention during World War II. That was not as high a proprtion as the Jews arrested abnd deported. We are not sure at this time just only half of the Austrian Gypsies were deported. Most were eventually killed in the death camps. Few of those deported survived. About half of Austrian Gypsies (about 4,500 people) survived the War.

Germany

Hungary

Hungary had a substantial Gypsey population of about 100,000 people. We have not yet found a detailed account of German and Hungarian policies. Reports vary. Somr suggest that only minor actions were organized, but we have seen much higher estimates of nearly 30,000 killings which would mean 30 percent of the country's Gypsey populalation. A factor here is that the Germans did not occupy Hungary until 1944.

Italy

Gypsies were percecuted in Italy long before the Fascists seized power. Mussolini nd his Blackshirts marched on Rome (1922). King Victor-Emmanuel III asked Benito Mussolini to form a new government. Mussolini proceeded to eliminate the political opposition and expnded the policy of imperialistic expansion. There was aasist element in Italian Fascism, but nothing like the virulent NAZI offshoot in Germany. The Holocaust as it evolved in Germany was not part of the Fascist program. Fascist policy was to discriminate against Jews and Gypseys, but not murder them. Gypseys even ore thn Jews were singled out and persecuted as 'zingari' (Gypsies). This changed as Hitler with the Axis lliance developing demanded changes in Italian law, especially measures targetting Jews. Mussolini published 'The Race Manifesto' (July 1938). It clearly defined racial differences and made them a legal term. Mussolini then created the Department for Demography and Race and the Race Tribunal. Next racial laws targetting Jews were passed (September 1938). The beginning of the Fascist regimes strident anti-Semitic policies. Gypseys were not included in the racial legisltion. Descrimination against Gypseys took a more traditional form. Gypseys were targeted by polixcies related to law and order. This was similar to policies in several other European counyries. Fascist authorities spoke about a 'Gypsy problem' early in the Fascist era (1926). Arrests increased. Foreign Gypseys and even some Italian Gypseys were expelled. After Italy entered the war (1940), actions against Gypseys increased. And Fascist authorities began to speak of it in racial terms. Guido Landra, head of the Office of Racial Studies at the Ministry of Popular Culture, began to speak of the Gypseys in racial terms and demand Government action. He began to refer to the physical and moral attributes of the 'Gypsy race'. The Ministry of Interior began to order internment (September 1940). Expulsions had been standard policy for some time, but this had meant that Gypseys arrested were expelled and dumped at the borders, especially the Yugoslav border. What then normally happened is that the the expelled Gypseys just sneaked across the border almost immediately returning to Italy. Beginning in 1940, authorities began interning Gypseys. Here policy concerning interment camps varied. Many of the internment camps were not just for Gypseys (Tremiti Islands, Sardinia, and others). Otther camps (Boiano and Agnona et Tossicia) were primarily for Gypseys. There was also a system of 'free internment' (compulsory residence). [Boursier] As far as we know, with the exception of a few isolated incidences, here were no transport of Gypseys to the NAZI death camps before the Germans invaded Italy. This changed when the Italians surrender to the Allies and switched sides (September 1943). Hitler was aware of what the Italians were planning and had already moved German forces into morthern Italy and immediately rushed reseves into Italy. In the chaos that followed, many Gypeys escaped from the interment camps. The Germans soon seized control of the camps as well as interned much of the Italian Army. It is at this point that transports to the Reich began. The death toll of Italian Gypseys was limited by the fact that the Germns were only in control of most of Italy for less than a year. After the liberation of Rome (June 1944), the Grmans were able to hang on to only northern Italy. We have not yet been able to find estimtes of the number of Gypseys killed.

Romania

Romania had Europe's largest Gyosey population, about 300,000 persons. Romanian Gypsyes were targeted during World War II, but not to the same extent as the Jews. There was never any anti-Gypsey laws passed. The major action targeting the Gypsies was ordered by Marshal Ion Antonescu. He personally ordered the deportation of Gypsies to the Ukranine during 1942. This was a Romanian operation nd not carried out under German pressure. The Romanians deported 25,000 gypseys to camps in the Ukraine. The orders targeted nomadic gypsies, but settled gypsies and even soldiers in uniform on home leave as well as Gypsey-looking Romanians were caught up in the sweep. Plans involved depoting more, but were cancelled. Armed Gyseys in the Army may have been a factor here. There were no further deportments. The SS reported executed 11,000 of these unfortunate people at the Trihati camp. Many died of typhoid, starvation and maltreatment. Only about 6,000 survived and managed to make it back to Romania.

Soviet Union

The Soviet Union had a substantial Gypsey population. We have seen various estimates, ranging from 60,000 to some 200,000 people within the Soviet pre-War 1939 borders. The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 radically changed the mature of the Russian Empire. The subsequent Civil War, social chaosm economic collapse and famine undermined the Gypsey economic situation. Not only did many continue their traditional semi-nomadic way of life, but quite a numer who had settled in towns, retuened to an itinerant living practicing artian activities. As condutions stabilized after the Civil War, Soviet officials designated the Gypseys as a national group entitled to certain linguistic, cultural, and educational privliges. A few Gypseys, mostly part of the 'musical elite' suceeded in emigrating along with White Russians. Mist Soviet Gypseys remnained in the soviet Union. The Census of 1926 reported that only abou 20 percent lived settled lives in towns. With the rise of Stalin, more restrictions on individual lives were enacted and enforced by the NKVD. This more than any special animus toward the Gypseys as a group impacted Gypsey life. The relatively small numbers and apolitica orientation, spared the Gypseys from any focused ethnic repression. Large number od Gypsey were deported from the western Soviet Union, primarily to Siberia. Efforts were made to collectivize the Gypseys. Soviet policy was for most of the pre-War era to treat Gypseys as a destinct people, who should develop as an ethnic community within Soviet society, by creating separate Gypsy kolkhozes, artels, schools, and other institutions. The NKVD rounded up gypseys in the major cities and deported many to Siberia. Gypseys in rural areas or living on the perifery of snall towns were left relatively untouched. Stalin for unknown reasons changed the paradigm of treating Gysys as a recognized ethnic group, just before the war. Soviet policy became to integrate Gyseys into mainstream Soviet society and special treatment and ethnic regonotion was withdrawn. There was some continued recognition in ethno-cultural terms (primarily in music and dance), but there was no priority effort to round up Gypseys without resient permits and deport them to Siberia. [Marushiakova and Popov] As a result, the Germans when they launched the Barbarossa invasion encountered small numbers of Gypseys still lining tenerate life styles. The German Einsatzgruppen are believed to have killed something like 30,000-35,000 of Soviet Gypsies, although there is no precise accounting. Most along with Soviet Jews were killed as they were encountered, largely in 1941. Accounbts suggest for the sake of efficiency many Gypsies were also shot naked, facing their graves that had been previously dug. Einsatzgruppen testimony reports that shooting Jews was easier, because they stood still. Gypies on the other hand tended to cry out, howl, and move constantly, even when they were foced on to the shooting ground. Some even jumped into the ditches before the shooting squads fired and pretended to be dead. [Hilberg]

Yugoslavia

Yugoslavia also had a large Gysey population. Documentation on German and other German Axis allied actions is limited. We note estimates ranging from about 25,000-90,000 Gyppsies killed.

Sources

Boursier, Giovanna. The Nazi period in Italy," Fact sheets on Roma: Soviet Union before World War II," Education of Roma Children in Europe website.

Hilberg, Raul. The Destruction of the European Jews (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1961), 439p.

Lewy, Guenther. The Nazi Persecution of the Gypsies (Oxford University Press, New York 2001).

Marushiakova, Elena and Veselin Popov. "Fact sheets on Roma: Soviet Union before World War II," Education of Roma Children in Europe websire.

Created: 12:44 AM 11/27/2016
Last updated: 12:44 AM 11/27/2016