France and Britain led the world in the development of photograophy. The first commercial process was the Daherreptype (1839). The less expensive Ambrotype followed (mis-1850s). Early photographs (Daguerreotypes and Ambrotypes) from those countries, however, are relatively rare, largely because of the strict enforcement pf patent laws. We have many more early photographs from America where enfoircement was virtually non-esistent. This change with the introduction, again, in France, of the ambrotype CDV (mid-1850s), although it did not become popular until a few years later (1859). Thus we see a tidal flow of photographic images for the first time (1860s). The cabinet card, essentially a large CDV, appeared a few years later (mid-1860s). Thec cabinet card was not as popular in Europe as it was in America, but this vried from ciuntry to countrry. While Germany was not a major participant in early photographic reeaech, the indutry quickly spread (1860s). We note many of the first studios in Eastern Europe abnd the Balkans were Germans, although the French were also important. Americca began to play an important role in the photographic industyry ag gradually research, competiung with European compnies. Kodak becae an industry leader with the Brownie (900). Abd photography became more important in Germany during the early-20th century than any other Eiropean countries. Germnan film countries and cnera compsnires became industry leaders. Germany strong chemical industry was a important support for the film industry. Agfa became an early leader in color photography. The German industry, however, wasevely set bck by World war II and neverfully recovered as American Kodak snd Japnese Fuji became leaders in the world of film. The move to digital photography was led by America and Japan.
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Austrians as far as can tell were not involved in the reseaech that led to the invention of photography in the 1820s and 30s. As far as we can tell, the industry was slow to develop in Austria after the Daguerreotype appear (1839). We have not found any 1840s dags and 50s dags seem rare. We note Joseph Puchberger invented the first panoramic camera (1843). We have no information on Ambrotypes and Tintypes. The Albertina Museum and research project in Vienna does a lot of work on photography and the graohic arts. We note that two of the three books they offerd on their webite in 2010 about Vienese photography began in 1860. The rarity of early photographs is similar to the pattern in Germany. We do begin to see substantial numbers of Austria photographs in the 1860s with the appearance of the CDV. From this point the photographic industry in Austria seems very similar to that of other German states. (Germany was only unified in 1871). Austrian Karl Klic invented photogravure (1879). This was an important step toward the ability to print photographs. Until this, phoptographs and paintings had to be engraved, an expensive process to be printyed in books and magazines. Photogravure was a relatively inexpensive photomechanical process.
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We have been unable to find much information about photography in Belgium. We do note that some of the first forensic photographers were taken in Belgium (1843). That was only a few years after the invention of the Daguerreotype priocess. We notice relatively few Dags and Ambros, but the same was true for Rance and Germany as well. We first begin to see lsrge numbers of photograohic images whgen the albumen process abd the CDV becomes popular (1860s). The photographs we have archived sugges that Belgian photography followed the same basic trends prevalent in neigboring France and Germany. Belgium had a very strong chemical industry and Belgian companies manufactured photographic paper. Gevaert Ridax was an important manufacturer of photographic paper. Leo Hendrik Baekeland (1863–1944) was a Belgian chemist who invented Velox photographic paper (1893). Velox became the basis for Kodak photgraphic paper. We have not yet foiund information on Belgian photographers. We do note the Baker-Johnsons, but their woek is primrily associated withn the United states. The most important museum of photography in Europe is located in Charleroi, the largest city in Wallonia. It is situated in the former Carmelite monastery of Mont-sur-Marchienne.
We do not yet have any information about photogrphy in Bulgaria. We think trends were very silimar to those in the rest of Europe, especially Germany. The general pattern in the Balkans after the various countries achieved independence was for foreigners to setup studios. Many Germans set up studios. This meant that modern trends were rapidly introduced in Bulgaria during the 19th century. We do note some rather dated trends in the early-20th century. We do not yet have a large enough archive to know how common this was.
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English researchers made some of the most important discoveries which led to modern photography. It was English scholar and resaearcher William Henry Fox Talbott that first fixed an image on paper (1834). He does not, however, seem to have told anyone. Talbot was a classical scholar and amateur scientist of independent means and saw no need or inclination to either publicize his achievement or develop a commercial application. He apparently did not even tell his mother until after Daguerre began publicizing his accomplishments (1839). She was apparently furious with him. And after Tabot began showing his images, he called them calotypes, using the Greek word 'kalos' meaning beautiful. This showed his roots as a clasical scholar and lack of interest in self promotion. The Calotype as a result is little noted. This meant of course that it is French researcher Louis Daguerre who is generally seen in the public mind sas tghe inventior of ohoitograpy. And only a few historians have ever heard of Talbot. Daguere's was a self promoter which is why the process is known as Dguerrepotype. It involved using metal plates whivch is why after a short run it proved to be a commercial dead end. The Daguerreotype was a commercial success in the 1840s. . It would be Talbot's process which used a negative that would ultimately until the digital age be the basis for modern photography. Talbot worked to improved his process in the 1840s. Frederick Scott Archer (1813-57) in England invented the photographic collodion process which preceded the modern gelatin emulsion. The initial result ambrotype which used this process. This esentially ended the commercial potential of the calotype. Professional studios quickly adopted the collodion process. Interestingly, upperclass amateurs, often from the landed gentry, continued to dable with caloptypes. Thus mny of these images are scenes of the countryside, but rarely of the rising industrial cities. It would not be in either England or Frace, however that photograsphy took off. It would be in Americsa.
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We do not yet have much information on Finnish photography. There is a museum of Finish photography, but as best we can tell, they have not yet prepared a basic history of Finnish photography. Photography was developed in Western Europe in the mid-19th century. France and Britain were especially important. Finland was a small (in terms of population) province of the Tsarist empire. It was an agricultural region, but its location at the northwestern corner of the Tsarist Empire with Baltic ports and a border with Sweden meant that the country was more exposed to the West than most other other regions of the Empire. As was the case of most largely agicultural small countris or provinces, the first commercial photography was founded by foreigners from Russia or the West. The first professional photographers working in Finland came from Russia and the more advanced Baltic countries/provinces (Denmark, Germany, and Sweden). Estonia was also important. It was another Tsarist province, but was located across the Gulf of Finland and there are many ethnic and cultural ties such as language. Cameras and other photographic equiment and and film was and continues to be imported. We have not yet found much early Finnish photography, but suspect that only with the appearance of 19th century albumen prints (CDVs and cabinet cards) do we see much in the way of portraiture that is a mainstay of our website. We do not know much about individual phoyopgraphers. A reader tellus us about I. K. Inha, pseudonym of Konrad Into Nyström (1865-1930), one of the main Finnish photographers.
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The important early work in photography was donr in France and England. French inventor Joseph Nicéphore Niépce is credited with the achievement of creatingh the first permanent photograp (12826). He produced photographic images on polished pewter plate which he covered with a petroleum derivative called bitumen of Judea. The bitumen hardened when exposed to light. The unhardened material which were the dark areas of an image could then be washed away. The polished metal plate was a negative. Niépce produced a positive print by coating the pewter plare with ink and pressing it on paper. Next Niépce began experimenting with iron compounds. He had read about Johann Heinrich Schultz work with iron and chalk mixture that darkened when exposed to light (1724).
Niépce (in Chalon-sur-Saône) began working with and Louis Daguerre (in Paris). Together they refined the silver process.
Hercules Florence, a French-Brazilian painter and inventor, invented a silver process which he called Photographie. It does not seem to have made a major commercial impact. Niépce died of a stroke (1833). He left his papers and experimental notes to Daguerre who continued working to refine the still primitive photographic process. Daguerre was not a trained scientist. He managed, however, to make made two critical discoveries. First he found the critical neceessary chemical steps. This was a two step process. He used iodine vapour on the plate before exposing it tgo light. Then after the exposure he used mercury fumes. This brought out a latent image. Second, bathing the exposed plate in a salt bath fixed the image. Daguerre announced his invention (1839). Fox Talbot in England after hearing of Daguerre's success, announced his work. Commercial photography began with the Daguerreotype. While France was the leader in photography with the Daguerreotype, for some reason we have bren able to find few Frencg dags. We are not sure why this is. One source says that the French government bought the patent and made it public domain. Our understanding is tht Daguerre persued copy rught struggles with immitators. The Daguerreotype was a huge hit in America and large numbers of studios were operned. Apparently this did not occur in France. As the name suggests, the origins of the carte-de-viste (CDV) using a negative process was French (1851). Another source indicates that a French photographer, André-Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri, introduce the CDV (1854). We do not, however, begin to see many actual examples until the end of the decade.
Germany in the 20th century is one of the countries most associated with photography and was in particular a leader with color photography. We have much less information on the 19th century. The first available commercial photographic process was the Daguerreotype which was developed in France (1830s). Talbot at the same time developed the caloptype. There seems to have been no comparable work in Germany. Nor or we sure about te development oif the industry in the mid-19th century. We note large numbers of dags, mostly in cases from the 1840s and 50s in America. And by the 1850s other processes like anbrotypes appeares. We have not yet found substantial numbers of German dags or ambrotypes. We are sonewhat confused by this as surely there must have been mny dags made as although Germany was not yet united, it was one of the more prosperous areas of Europe. We do note large numbers of CDVs in Germany beginning with the 1860s. The CDVs basically made dags and ambrotypes obsolete. Most families of any affluence would have a CDV album, sometimes several, in the parlour. CDVs seem to gave been the principal formt form most of the late 19th century. Cabinent cards do not seem to have been as popular in Germany as they were in America. Most studio portraits were CDvs. We note large numbers of snapshots after the turn of the 20th century. Photography seems to have been more popular in Germany than in any other European country. Families through World War II would combine albums. Some times children would put together their own albums. Snapshots were pasted on blacl paper sheets. Germany became a leader in photography, including color photography. Agfa was more common in Europe than Kodak. World War II changed that.
Photography was first perfected in France. Greece was one of the first foreign countries that French photographers visited to take their pictures. In 1839, Joly de Lotbiniere took the first photographs of Acropolis. Since the mid-1800s Greek photographers started making their own pictures. The first was Filippos Margaritis who also photographed the first royal family of Greece. During the first half of the 20th Century there were numerous photographers in Greece that they had studios in the big cities. Almost all prosperous families of these times had their portraits and childrens portraits taken. The most famous photographer of early 20th century is Periklis Diamantopoulos. In the 1910s through the 30s many photographers started to take pictures of important events such as Wars, demostrations and other political events. At the same time many Greek photographers started taking the first artistic pictures.
We do not yet have much information omn the Italian photography industry. Italians did not play a mjor role in the seserch that led tp the invention of photographic processes. This was mostly done in Britain and France. We have not yet found any early Italian photogra[hs like Daguerreotypes and Anbros from the mid-19th centurry. We believe they exist, but are not very common. Italy is one of the more populace Europwan countries, but was not a very wealthy country. And of course weath is a factor in the development of the photographic indutry. We begin to find Itatalian studio portraits in the late-19th century. And by the 20th century as in other countries we begin to find substantial numbers of photographic images, both studio portraits and family snapshots. An Italian reader tells us that Fratelli Alinari (Alinari Bros) is the oldest Italian photographic company. It was founded in Florence by Leopoldo (1832-65), Giuseppe (1836-90) and Romualdo Alinari (1830-90) durng 1852. Leopoldo's son Vittorio (1859-1932) took over the firm (1892). He was especially interested in documentary photography. Now the photographic archives of the Fratelli Alinari has more then 4 million images. Here we have a photograph Vittorio about 1910.
We have very little information about the history of Dutch photography. We do not notice any Dutch researchers involved in the early development of photography. We do note Dutch studios appearing based on the advances in neigboring countries, primarily France and Britain. We have not found any Dutch Daguerreotyoes or Ambrotypes to archive , but we know that there were studios. The Netherlands is a small country and thus there would have been fewer taken than in larger countries. And as in the rest of Europe, the industry did not grow as fast as in the United States. One early Dutch photographer was Pieter Oosterhuis (1816-85) who was an artist that develooped an interest in photography. He apparently set up his Atelier Photographique et Daguerreotypique to support himself and his new wife (aboyt 1851). Ammsterdam was a city of over 240,000 people with only six Daguerreotype stidios at the time, fewer than in other important cities. Stereo photography was exhibited in the Netherlabnds at an internatiional exhibit (1855). Oosterhuis was the first photographet to actually offer stero portraits. He also began taking outsoors landscapes. Another early Dutch photographer was Jacob Olie (1834-1905). He traioned as a carpeter, but had an interest in drawing. As a youth he was very interested in the photographic medium as a way of displaing architectuaral works. As an older man after retiring he returned to photography. We have not yet found Dutch photographs until the appearance of the CDV (1860s). This of course significantly increased the number of availavle images. As best we can tell, Dutch photographic trends generally followed developments in the larger countries whioch surround the Nerherlands, especially Germany.
We are just beginning to work on Polish photography and do noy yet hav much information. At the time photography was developed, Poland had been partioned by the the three great European empires (Austria, Prussia/Germany, and Russia). Most of Poland including Warsaw had been absorbed into the Russian Tsarist Empire. Thus photographic developments were strongly affected by the photographic industry develoopments in those countries. We do not know of any techical innovations from Poland, but news of the early developments reaced Poland very quickly after the develomnts mostly in England and France. There were reports published in important journals and almost immediately interested indiciduals began experimenting. The first Daguerreotypists wre more like scientists or even artists than commercial photographers. They experimented with Talbotypes (calotypes) and Daguerrotypes. Andrzej Radwański is believed to have produced the first PolishDaguerrotype (1839). Polish Dags are rare, but they are generally much less common throughout Europe than was the case of America. The painter artist Marcin Zalewski in Warsaw was a noted Daguereotypists and considered to be the father of art photograpgher. Other importaht Daguerreotypists included: Jozef Gloisner in Lwów, Jan Stefan Kuczyński in Kraków; and Jan Moritz Scholtz. Scholtz was a respcted lithographer and published lithographic prints from his Daguerrotypes. Ambrotypes seem less common. Maksymilian Strasz, the Kielce district's head engineer, published a photography handbook (1856) that became a kind of Bible for Polish photographers. Dags dominated the industry into the 1860s when as in other countries, the albumen process and CDVs became the dominant format. And unlike Dags, they were done in substantial numbers, especially in western areas of Poland which were part of the German and Austrian Emmpires. Warsaw in the Tsarist section of Poland was also important. The single most important Polish photographer during the 19th century was Karol Beyer. Polish photographers, apprently having more contact with the West, were active throughout the Tsarit territories, including St. Petersburg. We notice Polish photographers from an early point in in Ukranian cities as well as far to the east in Siberian cities. This is interesting because it suggests that the Poles were a conduit for Western technology. Soon cabinet cards also appeared, but CDVs remained common until the turn-of-the 20th century. Then we begin to see snapshots, although the relative low incomes of many Poles meant that cameras and photogaph was not as prevalent as was the case in Western Europe, especially Germany. Even so we begin to see snpshots for the first time (1900s). We have not yet archived very many Polish snapshots, but we begin to see more after World War I in the 1920s.
We have been unable to find information on the history of photography in Romania. We do note that many of the 19th century photographic studios were operated by Germans. This reflects the fact that Germany rapidly industrialized in the 19th century and Romania was still a largely agricultural country. This suggests that photograophy was essentially intoduced to Romania and dominated by Germans living in the country. This presumavly included both Romanian citizens and resident aliens. Romania of course had a German monarchy and a substantial ethnic German minority. As in other countries we notice CDVs and cabinet cards in the 19th century. We do not note the earlier formats like Daguerreotyoes and Ambrotypes. As was common in Europe, CDVs continued to be popular in Romania longer than was the case in America. We have acquired very few 19th century image. the earliest dates to the 1870s, but we suspect there must hsve been at least some images taken in the 1860s. We have collected quite a number of 20th century images at least given Romania's small size and economic condition. Images from Bucharest and the major cities suggest a life style much like Western Europe, but in the country side we see very tradition life style and clothing. With the devloping interest in genre photography, Romania because of its relative backward rural culture attracted considerable interest in the 19th century. According to one author, " Positioned at the ‘Gates of the Orient’, the Romanian Principalities attracted a large number of nineteenth century travellers, merchants, students and artists. For the artists, in particular, a visit to Romania was synomynous with a pilgrimage into the Romantic period, to a remote land filled with picturesque scenery, strange people and unbelievable adventures. Moreover, their services were welcomed by the local citizens." [Ionescu] We have very little information on individual Romanian photographers. One recently discovered a trove of Romanin pre-World War II was the work of Costică Acsinte. They were found stored in the back of a county museum. They are interesting because they are not just studio portaits, but genre images bringing the life style and economic images of a past era to life.
Russia was very active in the area of photography. A Russian photographer, Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii, created a wonderful, if complicated, color photography system. The images were stuningly beautiful, but the process was too complicated for commercial use. There were also a number crative photographers. Russian photographers participated in important movements of the time, ncluding romanticism, constructivism and the avant-garde, As a result of their work there is a wondrful body of wotk realistically depicting life in Tsarist Russia. The Bolsheviks upon seizing power demanded that photographers create images depicting a true worker's paradise an early use of photogaphy as a propaganda tool. Photographers who wanted to pusue their profession had to comply with Government edicts which were not always consistent. Lenin took a personal interest in propaganda and set out to ensure that photographers worked to promote the Revolution. There was in the 1920s still some room for creative photography. One of the best known early Soviet photo journalists was Leonid Shokin, whose work hained him some fame in the 1920s. Communist ideological control on photography became even more pronounced in the late-1920s when Stalin gained control of the Party and Soviet state. Stalin strongly promoted the concept of Soviet realism. We begin to see very idealized images of workers, farmers, atthletes, and soldiers. By the 1930s, all Soviet profesional photographic work looked alike. Unlike some photographers sentenced to the Gulag, Shokin was not arrested. Most of his archive, however, was destroyed. He had to watch the NKVD destroy over 5,000 of his images. Some of his images of the Soviet Union survived, but only because they reached the West.
Scotland was not involved in the early research on photography. After the announcements by Daguerre in France
and Talbot in England (1839), Scotts immediately began to take an interest. James Howie held a daguerreotype exhibition on Princes Street (1839). Pioneering work was done by Hill and Adamson (early-1840s). David Octavius was a painter working on a large commemorative work on the people involved in forming the Free Church of Scotland (1843). He used photography to help capture images of the church elders that he could then paint. .Shortly after the dawn of photography, the unlikely partnership between the respected painter Hill worked with a young engineer, Robert Adamson and together they produced some of the earliest photographic images of Scotland. They concentrated on the calotype process and produced several thousand imahes at their studio at Rock House, As in England, Daugerreotypes are relatively rate, but in the 1860s we begin to see large numbers of CDVs. A rare early female photographer was Julia Margaret Cameron (1815–79). Her photiography began in middke age when her daughter gave her a camera. She photographed celebrities as well as ptoducing experimental images with Arthurian and other legendary themes.
Most of Western Euroee learned about the invention of photography in France very quickly and by the end of the year the technical details were known with the publication of Daguere's manual in Swedish (1839). Swedish chemists followed the developments. The Swedish Academy of Science published papers on photography. Sweden would not make ban imprtant technical contribution to photography, but as in most countries created an imprtantnbody of work depicting their peoole and landcape over time. The Swedish phoographic pioneers, however, were not scientists, but G.A. Müller, a stage desihner, and U.E. Mannerhjeerta, a lithographer. Another lithographr, Lt. L.J. Benzelstierna obtained a Daguerreotyoe apartus, sent by the Swedish Ambassadir in Paris. All three nen began exhibiting the first Swediish photograohs at thr Royal Museum --views of Stockholm (1840). A French merchant named Neubourg was also active. Benzelstiern emerged as Sweden's first professional photographer, althogh he did not st up a studio but organized a traveling demonstration. Gradually Dahuerreoitypists began to set up in the cities and itinerate Daguerreotypits, including many Danes and Germans, began to work the rural areas. J.W. Bergstrüm emerged as Sweden's geatest Dauerreotypist, producing masterful portraits. Ambrotyoes appeared (1850s). Dabid Gibson in Gothenburg was a pioneer Amnrotypists. There were also experiments with albumen paper (1851). The painter C.G. Carleman also worked with albumen paper. He also worked with half-tone lithograph, publishing the first photographic lithographic in a Swedish magazine (1871). There were only about 12 studios active and the number of the early photographs was limited. Immigrants palayed an important role and some Swedish photograpohers worked abroad like painter Oscar Gustav Rejander who did art photography in Engkand (1850s). As in other countries, improved negatives and the CDV created a boom (1860). For the first time really large numbers of photograhs began to appear. The CDV would dominate Swedish photography for several decades. And the number of studios mushroomed. In only a few years some 65 photographic studios were operating in Sweden (1865). This is a fractioin of the studios in America, but Sweden is a much smaller country. For the first time we begin tom see large numbers of photographic images. The most important studio was founded by Johannes Jaeger, who began as a an itinerate photographer and finally settled in Stockholm (1863). Anna Jonason in Gothenburg was also important. Soon we begin to see artisictic experimebts and amaturs becoming interested as well as individuals using photography in their works. Dr. Carl Curman who was a pioneer in bathing resorts used photograpohy to depict nature. Severin Nilson was one of the first photographers to dovument living conditions of the urbam poor and the developing slums. Otto Wegener compted with Nadar in Paris (1880s-90s). Swedish photographers left important iontributions in North America. John A. Anderson photographed workers in California (lumbrerjacks and railroad workers). Eric Hägg craeted images of the Klondike Gold Rush. Gustaf Nordenskiöld was fascinated by the Native american Mesa Verde cliff site. As Europe developed an imprtant btourist indistry came into existence. The Swdish Toourist Association was founded (1885). They contracted phoitographers to create images of the country's landscape, wildlife and people. This of course required photograohers to get putsidethe studio, not an easy ufertaking until the 20th century. As in other western Europoean ncountries, the CDV continued to be important into the 20th century. In America and Eastern Europe the cabinet card largely replaced the CDV by the 1870s. The reasoms for these Photographers took an interest in folk costumes, but women and girls dominte the images left. Postcards became pooukar (1890s). At first the postcards were printed, but after the turn-of-the 20th century we begin to see photo postcard. Photography as much else was male dominated field. Important female photographers were Maria Lundbäck, Josefina Rydholm or Amalia Olsson. A wonderful collection of mostly 20th century photographs can be found at Bohusläns Museum.
Some of the earliest photographic images taken in Wales were the work of Welsh pioneer of photography John Dillwyn Llewelyn. The developmet of photography waslargely the work of French and English experimenters. Llewelyn contributed to their work with the Oxymel process (1856). It was a efinement of the collodion process which using solution of acetic acid, water, and honey to preserve images. This permitted glass negatives to be prepared in advance and exposed in the camera as required. It greatly symplied taking photographs outside the studio. Outside this, the development of the photographic industry in Wales was baically part of the industry in England. Like England, the industry developed much slower than in America. As a result, there is no huge quantity of early phtographic types like Daguerreotypes and Ambrotypes. Only with the popularity of the CDV using the albumen process (1860s) do we begin to see large numbers of studio portarits. As in other countries. the cabinet card using the same process appeared shortly after.
The history of Yugoslav photography is strongly oriented to the snapshot. This is because the country was not founded until after World War I. It was formaly founded a few years after the War (1923), but actually came into exitence, built around the Serbian monarchy a few years earlier. Thus there is no 19th century photogtaphic history. Of course there is a 19th century photographic history for Serbia and the other constituent Yugoslav provinces. For Yugoslavia itself we have basically a record of snapshots and studio portaits. Many of the pre-Wold War II photographs were done with postcard backs. This included both snapshots and studio portraits. We have found quite a number of Yugoslav photographs. We are not enirely sure that this is an accurate reflection of actual prevalence. A factor here is some active interet dealars. We see less activity in France and Italy. This affects our access to the photographic record. Yugoslavia is located south of Austria and much of the country was Austrian provinces. The photographic industry was strobnly inflenced by Germans. We note many photographic studios in what became Yugoslavia were opened and operated by Germans in the 19th century. This was the general pattern throughout Central and Eastern Europe. And even after Yugoslavia was formed, large numbers of studios continued to be operated by ethnic Germans.
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