Figure 1.--Here we see an Islamic Madrasa in 1899. It appears to be a omewhat liberal Madrasa. of course all of the teachers are men, but there are quite a few girls among the students.

We do not have a lot of historical infornmation on historic Indian schools. As far as we know schools in ancient India were just for the elite. The large peasant class was not educated. Which is not to say that there may not have been some exceptions. Ehen ever you have socities with a written languag, there have to be schools have somne sort. And it is more than likely that this involved children because every literate society we know of had schools which taught writing primarily to children. So it is reasonable to assume that was the case for society for which there is no information about school. It seems that the ancient schools in India were strongly assiciated with religion. We know nothing about the Indus Valley Civilization, but this there seems to be case with both Vedic (Hindu) and Buddhist education. As far as we know the state was not involved, but our information is very basic. There were many different civilizations in India duruing mediueval era. And we don't have information ob the schools they mave hve had, We believe there were both vedic and Buddhist schools. After the Arab outburst from Arabia (8th century), Islam gradually reached India. This would have neant that the mosques would have opened madrassas. As far as we know, all of these very different cultures followed the standard approach in most pre-modern civilizations of just offering formal education to a narrow elite. The Hindu associated guru appropach presumably dominted during this period. We know that India had a very sophisticated understanding of mathematics. This could have only come from some kind of school system. The modern system of Arabic numbers was develoed in India and briught to Europe via Arab scholsrship. While we know something of the Indian ssystem, we know little about vthe educational milleau in which it developed. The great Muslim scholar Alberuni (973–1048 AD), who visited the subcontint, descrived their sophisticated mathematics system. The principal Muslim penetration into India was the Mogol invasion and resulting empire (1526-1707). We do not yet have information on education in the Mogol Empire. We believe that the primary effort was at the madrassas associated with mosques. Vedic educatuiin continued as before. Buddhism had declined in the medieval era and gradually disappeared in India, so much so that the British when the arrived had no idea that Biddhism had originatedcin India. The Mogols came the close to unifying India, but never quite completed the conquest of the south. With the coming if the British we know much more about schools in India and religion continued to play an important role. Most of the private schools in modern India have a religious association. There are private schools run by different religious institutions: Buddhists, Christians, Hindus, Jains, Muslims, and Sikhs. The schools vary some an alternative to the s seculat public schools. Others supplement the secular schools with religious instruction.

Historic Religious Schools

We do not have a lot of historical infornmation on historic Indian schools. As far as we know schools in ancient India were just for the elite. The large peasant class was not educated. Which is not to say that there may not have been some exceptions. Ehen ever you have socities with a written languag, there have to be schools have somne sort. And it is more than likely that this involved children because every literate society we know of had schools which taught writing primarily to children. So it is reasonable to assume that was the case for society for which there is no information about school. It seems that the ancient schools in India were strongly assiciated with religion. We know nothing about the Indus Valley Civilization, but this there seems to be case with both Vedic (Hindu) and Buddhist education. As far as we know the state was not involved, but our information is very basic. There were many different civilizations in India duruing mediueval era. And we don't have information ob the schools they mave hve had, We believe there were both vedic and Buddhist schools. After the Arab outburst from Arabia (8th century), Islam gradually reached India. This would have neant that the mosques would have opened madrassas. As far as we know, all of these very different cultures followed the standard approach in most pre-modern civilizations of just offering formal education to a narrow elite. The Hindu associated guru appropach presumably dominted during this period. We know that India had a very sophisticated understanding of mathematics. This could have only come from some kind of school system. The modern system of Arabic numbers was develoed in India and briught to Europe via Arab scholsrship. While we know something of the Indian ssystem, we know little about vthe educational milleau in which it developed. The great Muslim scholar Alberuni (973–1048 AD), who visited the subcontint, descrived their sophisticated mathematics system. The principal Muslim penetration into India was the Mgol invasion and resulting empire (1526-1707). We do not yet have information on education in the Mogol Empire. We believe that the primary effort was at the madrassas associated with mosques. Vedic educatuiin continued as before. Buddhism had declined in the medieval era and gradually disappeared in India, so mych so that the British when the arrived had no idea that Biddhism had originated in India. The Mogols came the close to unifying India, but never quite completed the conquest of the south.

Modern Religious Schools--Unaided

With the coming if the British we know much more about schools in India and religion continued to play an important role. Many of the private schools in modern India have a religious association, although we do nnot yet have precise details. A very substantial part of Indian children are educated in private schools. One 2014 estimate puts it at nearly 30 percent. ["Over ...] In many cities the proportion of private schools approches 50 percent. This is higher than in wealthy developed countries and unheard of in devloing countries. It speaked to both the importance of education and religion in Indian life. Most middle-class families send their children to private schools [Desai et. al.] This includes both day schools and boarding schools like the British founded Rajkumar College in Rajkot. It is the oldest private school in India offering a secular education. It is founded on the lines of an English public (elite private boarding school). Many private schools have a rligious afiliation. There are private schools run by different religious institutions: Buddhists, Christians, Hindus, Jains, Muslims, and Sikhs. The schools vary. Some are an alternative to the secular public schools. Others supplement the secular schools with religious instruction. We are not entirely sure about Indian laws concerning schools operated by religious groups. Such privatre schools are clealy permitted. We are not sure to what extent they are regulated by the Government as to curciculum and extremist involvement. Religions are permitted to found schools.

Buddhist schools

Christian schools

Christians are a very small part of the Indian population, only about 3 percent. There are a few areas in which Christinity was important locally, but in most areas, the country is overwealming Hindu with a substantial Muslim minority. Christianity has, however, played a major role in the development of the Indian education system. This was of course because Britain was the colonial power an introduced the idea of secular education to India. It is through the British example that the idea of public education, state financed schools for the whole population as introduced to India. Education in India before the arrival of the British was limited to the elite of society. Upper caste boys would go to gurukuls to study under the tutorship of a guru. The numbers involved were limited. Girls even upper caste families were not educated. With the arrival of missionaries they began to start schools for common people, generally in the vernacular language. Even authors who criticize the missionaries often admit of the imortant role they played in education. One such critic, for example, acknowledges the contribution of missionaries in Bengal to the cause of mass education. [Bagchee] Missionaries educated children in local languages. They significantly advanced the standard of education, trained teachers, and improved methods of teaching. English colonial adminidtrators who were Christians established the first secular schools in India during the Raj. During the British Raj, Christian private schools were quite prominent and widely attended by both British and Indian students. The British founded secular schools, but many had religious association just as the private schools in Britain had. Christian schools were founded, especially in areas with a heavy Christian population. Many contiunue to function. Christiam churches not only founded school for basically educational purposes. Many of these schools were fee paying private schools. But the Christian missions foiunded by churches in Britain and oher countries. also opened schools with a primarily humanitarian character. Special attention was given to poor, abandoned, and orphaned children. They rececive support from Western churches. Our knowledge of the privte school system in India is still limited, but we do not know of any other effort quite like this in India. .

Hindu schools

A gurukula or gurukulam ( गुरुकुल ) was a type of residential school in ancient India. Here the shishya (students / disciples) lived near or with the guru in the same house. This was not uniqely Hindu. The guru-shishya system was a sacred tradition. It was followed by religious faiths in India, including Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. The name of the school, gurukula, combined the Sanskrit words guru (teacher / master) and kula (family /chome). Before the arrival of the British, the gurukula was the primary educational system in South Asia. The term is used in India today to refer to residential monasteries or schools operated by modern gurus who coninue to teach. The students / descipls lived together equals in a democratic society. [Kashalkar, pp. 81-84.] This was disregarding social standing, althogh thy all came from the privlidged classes. They were instructed by the guru and acted as his personal servants. Some observers suggest that even the mundane domestic tasks they performned serving the guru were an importnt part of the educationl system, teaching self-discipline among theyouuthful followers. Traditionally a guru does not receive fees from the shishya because the relationship between a guru and the shishya was consuidered sacred and money would hve ben seen as pollutant. The students could be away from their home for an extended period, monts or years. They were separed from their family completely. By the time the British begn to seize control of India (18th cenbtury), the gurukula system had declined significantly. Dayananda Saraswati, the founder of Arya Samaj and Swami Shraddhanand pioneered a revival of a modern gurukula system (1886). [Ujjwal, pp. 96-97.] They founded the now-widespread Dayanand Anglo-Vedic Public Schools and Universities. Shastriji Maharaj Shree Dharamjivan das Swami after indeoendence initiated the first Swaminarayan gurukula in Rajkot in Gujarat state of India (1948). More recently, several gurukulam have opened up in India as well as overseas seeking to cintnue the ancient tradition. Several gurukulam are active in India. Researchers are studying the effectiveness of thus ancient system. [Joshi and Gupta] There are also more standard Hindu schools, but they are much smaller in number than the Madrasas.

Muslim schools

The largest religious school system are the thousands of Islamic Madrasas. We are not sure how the Madrasas are financed. There is a security concern as a result of the wars with Muslim Pakistan and Islamic terrorism. Another issue is that the educational achievement and literacy rate among Muslims is far below that of the majority Hindus. A key factor here is a reluctance of some Muslims to educate girls. This is the primary reason that Muslim education lags behind Hindu education. The Government reports that about 70 percent of Muslim children enter primry school, but only a little more than 55 percent continue to the upper primary years. [HRD] Most of these children attend the state primaries. Only about 3 percent of Muslim children attend the Madrasas rather than the public schools. [Sachar Committee] And in most cases it does not appear to be a religious decesions, although in some cases it was. . Often it is because in rural areas, a public school is not available. In other cases it is because a Madrasa offered free board and meals. A larger number of Muslim children attend Madrasas after public school hours or over the weekend for relgious instruction.

Aided Private Schools: D.A.V. College Managing Committee

The Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) College Managing Committee (DAVCMC) was formed (1886). It was formed on the basis of humanitarian efforts and social reforms occuring in Britain. It was unlike any effort in pre-European India. DAVCMC is a non-governmental educational organisation, the first Non-Governmental (NGO) adressing humanitarian needs. It now operats over 900 schools, 75 collegesm, and a university. The DAV system is based on the ideals of the religious and social reformer, Swami Dayanand Saraswati. The DAV education system includes schools and colleges located throughout India offering graduate and post-graduate degrees in a ange of disciplines and located throughout the country. The DAV effort began in Lahore based on Swami Dayanand Saraswati teachings, but Mahatma Hansraj led the organising force. Tha academic effort is coordinatd with CBSE, ICSE, other regional boards, and Arya Samaj. The DAV schools are noted for academic excellence. They set the record for the highest number of CBSE (class Xth and XIIth) top performers at a single institution in the last 10 years. English is the primary language of instruction. This is important because Indian leaders at the natioinal level need a mastery of English. Many different lanuages are spoke in India. Few individuals are able go master more than two or three languages. English is the only common medium of communication holding the country together. Students also receiving compulsory instructiomn in Hindi and Sanskrit or a regional language. The DAV has expanded since independence to become the single largest non-governmental educational institution in the country. Most DAV schools are in India, but the DAVCMC also support Hindu communnkity schools located in neigboring Nepal, as well as former British Empire territories where Indian contract labor was transported (Fiji, Mauritius, and Singapore). They employ nearly 70,000 people and educate some 2 million students annually.

Sources

Bagchee, Moni. "Christian Missionaries in Bengal".

Desai, Sonalde, Amaresh Dubey, Reeve Vanneman and Rukmini Banerji. 2009. "Private schooling in India: A new landscape," Suman Bery, Barry Bosworth, and Arvind Panagariya, ed. India Policy Forum Vol. 5. Pp. 1-58, ( New Delhi: Sage, 2009).

Joshi, Ankur and Rajen K. Gupta. "Elementary education in Bharat (that is India): insights from a postcolonial ethnographic study of a Gurukul," International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management (July 2017) Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 100-20.

Kashalkar, Snyukta. "Comparative study of ancient gurukula system and the new trend of guru-shishya parampara," American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences Vo. 2, No. 1. (March-May 2013), pp. 81-84.

Ministry of Human Resource Development (HRD). "Flash Statistics: Elementary Education in India and Progress Towards Universal Elementary Education (2006-07)".

"Over a quarter of enrollments in rural India are in private schools." The Hindu (August 21, 2014.

[Rajinder] Sachar Committee (2005). This was a report on the status of Muslims in India which was commissioned by the Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh. The final version of the study reported that the status of Muslims in India was 'abysmal'. It was received with varied reactions, large based on religious and political preferences. It was praised by leftist parties and Muslims. It was criticized by conservative parties and Hindus.

Ujjwal, Madalsa. 2008, Swami Dayanand Saraswati Life and Ideas (Book Treasure Publications: Jodhpur, 2008).

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