Figure 1.--Here we see an unidentified English girls' school class, probably in the 1930s. The girls wear gym slips. We are not sure about the colors. Note that their are minor differences in the dresses. Even more so are are differences in the blouses worn and the cloth belts. Almost all the girls wear black long stockings. This was a uniform item suggesting a very consrvative school. The school looks to be a beginning class in a grammar school. The girls are wearing award ribbons. Rather thn a class group, this appears to be a groiup of award winners.
Britain was slow to develop a public school system compared to America and Grmany. And as aesult girl's education was particularly deficint.
Parents in the 18th century did not consider it necessary to educate girls. Some paents actually thought that educatiin might make marriage more difficult. Many of the girls who recrived some education were in well-to-do families who hired tutors for their sons. Often sisters sat in the lessons. Among families in comfortable circumstances, education was recognized as important to success in professional and public life. Boys were thus educated 'for the world' and sent off the boarding schools. Girls were in contrast educated 'for the drawing room' which meant a social rather than an intellectual process. This and the fact that parents thouhht it necessaey to be more protective of girls, most girls from well-off families were educated at home. As far as we know there were no girls schools in England during the 18th century. Some girls were involved in the Sunday school Moveement, an effort to provide sme basic education to low-income children (late-18th century).
The idea that it was not importnt to educate girls began to be challenged in the 19th century, although it took some time for attitudes to change. At the onsetof the century, bic 18th century attitides prevailed. The girls ttending firmal schools were a small minority of well-to do girls who were sent to expensive, fashionable boarding schools. They were a sharp contrast to boys' schools. They had a decidely non-academic curriculum. Girls from middle-class professional and merchant families had a somewhat different path. They were educated at home, but might ttend a local day school such as a dame school for a few years. The Victorian Era was a period of reform, despite its modern image as stogy and conservative. Miss Buss and Miss Beale were leaders in girls' education. They set up a primitive system of girls' education. The idea was to emulate the best boys' schools, and this went so far as to involve wearing of collared blouses somewhat similar to men's shirts, including separate stiff collars. Girls also began wearing ties and blazers, only with shirts and dresses. Frances Mary Buss established the North London Collegiate School (1850). This was the first of the modern fee-paying day schools or High Schools, offering girls the kind of academic education given to boys. Girls benefitted from the various educational reforms as the Government began to become more involved in education and build a public education system.
The Endowed Schools Act (1869) provied girls' access to grammar schools, which at the time were the principal secondary schools other that the public )private boarding) schools. Previously the grammar schools were almost exclusively male. Emily Shirreff and her sister Maria Grey founded the Girls' Public Day School Company (1872). This made it possible for schools to be owned by trusts or companies and controlled by a board of governors rather than by private individuals. The first British girls' public school, St Andrew's, opened in Scotland (1877). This was followed by Roedean (1885) and Wycombe Abbey (1896).
Girls education advanced rapidly with the turn of the 20th century. The Education/Balfour Act (1902) provided increased funding for secondary education. This resulted in the opening of many new secondary schools, including almost 350 for girls. As a result of this and other developments, the number of girls in secondaty schools increased from a mere 20,000 (1897) to 185,000 (1920).
Remarkably the ue of boyss' garments like blazers and ties has been retained and is to be seen today worn by teenage girls at many many schools in England (although nowadays with semi-stiff attached collars.) The girls school uniforms worn today began to take shape in the 19th century, although girls uniforms were still quite varied. The gym slip was a major girls uniform item in the early 20th century and was popular through the 1950s. Long stockings were very common. It is still worn at quite a number of schools. Gradually after the World War II, girls uniforms became increasingly stanadedized. Girls during the winter term wear blouses and pleated skirts with the same jumpers that the boys wear. The skirts are often grey. Plaid skirts are also worn, but are not as common as in America. Hosiery is highly varied including both tights and socks. The socks but not the tights are often white. During the summer term, brightly colored, often checked, cotton frocks are worn.
The Celts
We know of no formal schools in Celtic Briatain
Roman Britain (1st-4th century)
The Roman conquest of Britain began (43 AD). Rome was aurban ibiuklzation and Roiman cities begn to spring up in Celtic populion centers. There were schools in Roman cities. Girls did zttednd schools. There is no reason gto be believe that there were no schools in Roman Btritin and that girls did not attend schools. Roman ruins have been extenively studied in Britain. Andthere has not yet ny evuidence discovered of a school for boys or girls. The Romans Lbegan draeing down the Legions as German invaders increased pressure on Rome (late-4th century AD). The last Legions were withdrawn (410 AD).
Mediveal Era (5th-15th centuries)
The withhdrawl of the Roman Legions was essentially the beginning of the medieval era. This wasa n increadably long period, essentially a millenium. And Britain rapidly deurbanized and writing was losst. We as a result know very littleabout became the Dark Ages, especially as the invading Anglo-Saxons were not a literate people. For the first half of the medieval era scgools were next to non-existaent. Next to no one attened any schools or learned to read. Even most arustocrats were illiterate. Even England's greastest king, Alfred, did not learn to read until nhe was 12 yeras old. The Church was he repository of learming. And the monasteries that arose in what was to become England sponsored schools and founded schools in rrban centers thay arose. Scholars are unsure about the number of boys taughtbat theseschools, but it would have been a veey small of the populatoion. Snf thise schools were only for boys. The only schools for girls were organized by nuneries to train novices and a small number of girla from nobel famlies. Thus an even smaller number of girls learned to read and write. Small numbers of tutors in nobel househilds tughtbthe children. This was mostly for boys, but some girls slso learned. In the second half of the medievl period as the economy quickened more merchant familes acquired status and wealth. Grammar scvhools appeared uin the growing cities, bt they were only for boys. Girls in these merchant families might be taught to read and write. There were still no schools except for the convent schools. Some aristocratic girls might have been tutorsd, but the only way for most girls to learn to raed was to be taught by their immediate family which would have been mostly merchant families. And while the boys would have been the primary focus, girls were also often taught as well. The great bulk of the popuation was the peasantry, and because they were illiterate thenselkves, could hardly teach theeir children. There is virtually no evdence of female writing. A rare exception is a manucript, 'Why cant;'t I be a nun?' (14th century). It was probably wru=itten by a woman. The wiuves of maercgants often opartucioated in the gamily business. And merchants might leave their estates to their wives which woukd require a degree of literacy to manage.
The 16th Century
The economy continued to exand in the 16th century meaning more merchant families and small land owners needed to read and write and do sums. But there were still no schools for girls other than the convent schools. But more girls were being taught by their immediate families becauses theur servics were useful in an expanding economy. King Henry as part of his disputes with the popes over his marriage, decided to dissolve the monasteries and nunneries as part of the unfolding Reformation. Henry opposed the Reformation, but even more he wanbted to divorce his wife. And this invevitably led to a break with Rome, essentially launching the Reformation in England. And his wife Anne Boyeln and even more imprtantly, jos Chancellor Thoimas Croimwell led it in a radical Priotestant direction. This was blow to English education because the monasteries and Church in general played such an important role in education. With the loss of the nuneries, the only schools for girls were closed down. This was an immediate educational loss, but in the long run the Reformation was a great boon for education, including the educatiion of girls. A central tenent of the Reformation was Bible reading. The Catholic Church opppsed Bible reading, knowing what it would lead to. The faithful were to rely on their priests for religious enlightenment. Earlier this was not feasible before the Reformation because Bibles produced by scribes were hugely exnpenmsive and in Latin. But a century before Luther less expensive printed Bibles appeared, including Bibles in the vernacular. And the insistance on Bible reading meant that the faithful had to be taught to read. As a result more schools apperaed. The Grammar Schools survived the disolution of the monasteries and new ones were founded. The new schools were all for boys, but this meant large numbers of people weere learning to read and girls inevitably benefitted through home instruction. The growing merchant class meant more and more people saw the importance of educating daughters beyond just religious matters, but so that they could assist in the family business.
The 17th Century
The 17th century was one of the most chaotic in English history. It would be a century-long stuggle between the Stuart dynastic aspiratiom to divine-right absolute rule and an elected Parliament as to who would be suprreme in England. it resulted in civil war, beheading a king, a duictatorial Commonwealth, restoration and finally the Glorious Revolution. We are not entirely dure as to just how these momentous events affected education and the role of women in society. Perhaps readers will have some thoughts. The Reformation in many ways laid the foundation for the Parlimentary victory. And we know that literacy rates were rising. The Refornmation was part of this because Bible reading was so important and both men and women were susposed to read their Billes. One important development increasing literacy were the Dame Schools that appeared (17th centyry). Anboyth biys anf girls were taught in these schools. In many cases they were glorified day care, but they significantly raised literacy rates. They did not go much beyond reeading and writing, and even writing instruction was limited. But in the 17th century, even basic literacy was an important step. The history of the century is almost entitely a history of men, only the cqueenscat the time emerge as of any importance. A rare woman of note was Aphra Behn (1640–89), quite a package--a playwright, poet, translator, and spy. We know next to nothing of her origins, but she attracted the attention of King Charles II. She spied for him in Antwerp (1666). After returning to England, she wrote plays--some of racist of the era. She is the first notable fenale English authoir. English auythor Virginia Woolf writes, "All women together ought to let flowers fall upon the tomb of Aphra Behn… for it was she who earned them the right to speak their minds."
Parents in the 18th century did not consider it necessary to educate girls. Some paents actually thought that educatioin might make marriage more difficult. As part of the Enligtenment other thoughts bgan to percolate, but by far the dominat nelief of the day was that educating women beyoind basic reading was a waste. George I became king (1714) and the 18 century was basically the Georgian era. Feminists generally view the Georgian era as basically a step back in both the freedoms and education, the two are intrinically linked, of English girls and women. There were some women who acieved some success, at the time notiriety might be used. The Blue Stocing Movement was born (mid-19th century). This was an informal women's social movement which basically was discussion groups moving away from accepted famales roles into literary and other intelectual topics. Both education and mutual cooperation were important. It was the first tentative step of a woman's group into intelectul pursuits. Men were invited and paricipated in the discussions. The women ere upper-class figures, primarily because it was upper-clss women whi were able to achieve some modicum of learning. Individual women also energed, mostly in literary circles. Science ws more difficult because there were no chools for women and they were not allowed in universities. The most notble was Mary Wollstonecraft, an author, philosopher, and fierce advocate of women's rights. At the time mmuch more attention as given to her unconventional personal relationships than her writings. The Enlightement touched on women's issues, the idea of educating women. Most famous was Rousseau's Emile, or On Education (1763). These developments were, however, mere blips on the radar. The dominant thinking at the time wa sthat the fenale mind was not capable of higher thought. This led to the widely accepted vision of 'separate spheres'--men should dominant outside the home in the world of intekectual thought and work. The role of womenwas to run the home, childcare and the home. Even here, however, the legal system gave men the final say in most matters of imprtance. Literacy rates were rusing, but most of the girls who received some education were in well-to-do families who hired tutors for their sons. Often sisters sat in on the lessons. Among families in comfortable circumstances, education was recognized as important to success in professional and public life. Boys were thus educated 'for the world' and sent off the boarding schools. Girls were in contrast educated 'for the drawing room' which meant a social rather than an intellectual process. This and the fact that parents thouhht it necessaey to be more protective of girls, most girls from well-off families were educated at home. As far as we know there were no girls schools in England during the 18th century. There may have been some fishing schools for girls from well-to- do families, but ht was more of a 19th century phenomonon. The most important development occurred in the late-18th century. The Sunday school Movement was launchrd (1870). It did not create any girls' schools and it was at first meant for boys, after all girls has nver attnded schools before. It soon involved girls, largely because when they began rounding up boys, their sisters tagged along. And it developed into a lrgely coeducational teaching environment. For the first time in history, large numbers of girls begn azttending schools and learning to read and write. And interestingly they were mostly girls from poor families--middle class girls did not yet have any such opportunity. The Sunday School Movement swas a faith-based effort without government support to provide some basic education to low-income children (late-18th century). Not a great deal could be done one day a week, but it was enough to extns basic literacy to the workingclas which was an important beginning.
The idea that it was not important to educate girls began to be challenged in the 19th century, although it took some time for attitudes to change. New ideas about girls appeared at the same time that the English were beginning to consider the idea od educating poor children. Both concepts would take some idea to become widely accepted and adopted as public policy. At the onset of the century, 18th century attitides prevailed. The girlsa ttending firmal schools were a small minority of well-to do girls who were sent to expensive, fashionable boarding schools. They were a sharp contrast to boys' schools. They had a decidely non-academic curriculum. Girls from middle-class professional and merchant families had a somewhat different path. They were educated at home, but might ttend a local day school such as a dame school for a few years. The Victorian Era was a period of reform, despite its modern image as stoggy and conservative. actually new concepts breaking centuries of tradition were adopted by the victorians. Fundamental changes in education policy , not just gir;s' education bwere introducd by the Victorians. Education was given more attention than in all of past history. Miss Buss and Miss Beale were leaders in girls' education. They set up a primitive system of girls' education. The idea was to emulate the best boys' schools, and this went so far as to involve wearing of collared blouses somewhat similar to men's shirts, including separate stiff collars. Girls also began wearing ties and blazers, only with shirts and dresses. Frances Mary Buss established the North London Collegiate School (1850). This was the first of the modern fee-paying day schools or High Schools, offering girls the kind of academic education given to boys. Girls benefitted from the various educational reforms as the Government began to become more involved in education and build a public education system.
The Endowed Schools Act (1869) provied girls' access to grammar schools, which at the time were the principal secondary schools other that the public (elite private boarding) schools. Previously the grammar schools were almost exclusively male. Emily Shirreff and her sister Maria Grey founded the Girls' Public Day School Company (1872). This made it possible for schools to be owned by trusts or companies and controlled by a board of governors rather than by private individuals. The first British girls' public school, St Andrew's, opened in Scotland (1877). This was followed by Roedean (1885) and Wycombe Abbey (1896).
Girls education made modest gains in England during the 19th century, especially after mid-century. By the turn of the century boys and girls were being educated at the same rate at the primary level. It was at the secondary and university level that girls contuinued to lag. Schools tended to be sinle gender. Girls education advanced rapidly with the turn of the 20th century. The Education/Balfour Act (1902) provided increased funding for secondary education. This resulted in the opening of many new secondary schools, including almost 350 for girls. As a result of this and other developments, the number of girls in secondary schools increased from a mere 20,000 (1897) to 185,000 (1920). Remarkably the use of boys' garments like blazers and ties has been retained and is to be seen today worn by teenage girls at many many schools in England (although nowadays with semi-stiff attached collars.) The girls school uniforms worn today began to take shape in the 19th century, although girls uniforms were still quite varied. Gym uniforms changed . Midddy blouses and bloomers gave way to gum slips. The gym slip which became known as the pinafore dress was initially a gym uniform and came to be aadopted as a major girls uniform style in the early-20th century and was popular through the 1950s. Long stockings were very common. It is still worn at quite a number of schools. Major changes occurred afterworld War II with the expansion of the secondary system. Further changes occurred with the move toward copmrehensive schools. This ended most single-gender educatiion. Gradually after the World War II, girls uniforms became increasingly standardized. Girls during the winter term ware blouses and pleated skirts with the same jumpers (sweaters) that the boys wore. The skirts are often grey. Plaid skirts are also worn, but are not as common as in America. Hosiery is highly varied including both tights and socks. The socks but not the tights are often white. During the summer term, brightly colored, often checked, cotton frocks are worn.
