Figure 1.--.

Central Asia is dominated by the great Eur-Asian Steppe. It consists of a huge area of exceedingly inhospitable land including deserts and arid shrub lands. Only small areas are suitable for agriculture, bu there are grasslands that do support nomadic herding of horses. It was here that the horse which originated in North America developed into the majestic creatures that played such an important role in human history including the primary reason that Indo-European languages became so important. But without auricular, not great civilizations developed in Central Asia. There were two primary Central Asian peoples. One was the Turkic people in the West and second was the more Asiatic Mongol peoples in the East. This is generalized distinction because on the Steppe, Turkic and Mongolian peoples sometimes became intertwined. Agriculture was the great generator of wealth for most civilizations. Only in modern times did industry begin to become important (late-18h century). Central Asia was important in ancient times because horses were domesticated there. During the medieval era, Central Asia was important for three reasons. 1) The bubonic plague originated there, something that was unknown at the time. 2) It was the connecting link between East and West creating the Silk Road through which goods and ideas passed. The Silk Road existed because of the valuable goods, but the people carrying the goods inevitably brought ideas with them which in the long run proved much more important. Way stations became rich trading cities like Samarkand and Tashkent. It began in the 2nd century BC when Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty was in power and lasted until the 16th century AD when the Europeans opened maritime routes to Asia. The Silk Road would be the conduit for the flow of Chinese technology to Europe, playing a key role in the rise of the West. Religion also flowed over the Silk Road, Christianity failed to have an important impact on Asia, but Buddhism did. The fact that Christianity did not become implanted in Asia had a huge impact not widely recognized. 3) It was also the crucible for forming the fierce war-like peoples who raided and sometimes conquered the settled and richer civilization of Europe, the Middle East, South Asia, and China. Central Asia ceased playing an important role in history when Europeans opened maritime routes to Asia. Rome was overwhelmed by the Germanic tribes the Steppe people drove into the Empire (5th century AD). The Mongols created the world's largest land empire, funded largely by the Silk Road. It included China and Eastern Europe, but central and Western Europe survived largely because the Mongol tribal chiefs had to return to Mongolia to elect a new leader. Europe was saved because of in fighting among the Mongolian tribes and weaponry which negated the force of Mongol arms. Denied the enriching life blood of the Silk Road, Central Asia became irrelevant to the world economy and declined to irrelevance, beoming a backwater of history. And no important nations developerd in the region.

Khazars (650 – 969)

The Khazars were a semi-nomadic Turkic people. The Kingdom of Kharazia was established at a time when the Arabs fired with Islam were bursrting out pf the Arabian Peninsula and inflicting stunning defeats on Byzantine armies like the Battle of the Yarmuk (636). For centuries, the Khazar Kingdom whould be abuffer state between the Byzantines and the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates. Some historians believe the Khazars help slow the Arab advance into East asthe Franmcs and Charles Martel did in Europe. The Khazar Kingdom bordered on the Black anCaspian cies from Anatolia, notyh to he Cauacauses and whatis now Ukraine, Crimea, Georgia and southrer Russia. The Kingdom iginated with the West Turkish Empire which was a confederation of Turkish tribes including the Khazars. This empire desiningrated (7th century). The Khazars were left the most powerful tribe in the region. It was notalways Christians versus Tirks abd Arabs. Te Khazars at times alliedwith the Byzantinesc, once prioviding Byantine Emperorv Heraclius with 40,000 troops fight Sassanids (627). The Byzantines had ti fight a series of wars with the Arabs Unsucessfully trying to defend the Levant and North Africa (7th and 8th centuries). The Jhazrs also had to fight Arab armies. Theywon won an important victory defeding their capital, Balanjar. A second war was fought (???-741). Two decades of peace wasfollowed by the Third Muslim War. These wars relieved Arab pressure on Byzantium. The Calphate made a transition from the Umayyads to the Abbasids. Caliph al-Mansur made a diplomastic effort to improve relsations with the Khazars through a royal marriage (758). When the Khazar princess diesd, another war broke out. The military poerof heCalphae declined (9th centurty), but problems developed withthe Byzantines. Tthe Varangian Rus, meaning Vikings, reached Kiev and then (860). The Khazars attemted to diplmically play theByzantines off one another. Oleg of Novgorod was buildin a Kievian Rus empire. From Kiev he seized long held Khazar territory in the middle Dnieper (880). Khazar relations with the new Kievan Rus’ deteriorated (10th century). Rekations with the Byxzantines collapsed. Sviatoslav I of the Rus destroyed Khazar Kingdom He took Serkel (965) and the Khazar capital of Atil (969).

Pecheneg Khanates (860 – 1091)

The Pechenegs were another group of semi-nomadic Turkic people who had migrated from Central Asia. They were presued by hostile tribes such as Karluks, Kimaks and Oghuz Turks (late-8th or early-9thcentury). In tyurn they moved into the territory of the Hungarians, gorcing them to move westward. They settled along the Kuban and Donets Rivers (860). The Pechenegs for protection allied with Byzantines. The Byzantines found them useful in dealing with the Magyars and the Rus. The Pechenegs, however, encounteed a new tormentor-the Uzes, but the Oghuz, Kimaks, and Karluks coninued pressure them. The Pechenegs attacked the Magyars driving them west of the Dnieper (890s). They allied with Tsar Simeon I of the Bulgars to fight the Magyars. The Pechenegs had considerable success. They forced the Msagayrs to the Pannonian Plain. The Magyars settled there and it became the foundation of the Hungarian nation. The Pechenegs were cbstantly involved wth a seriesof wars and alliances with the Kievan Rus. There was amspercially damaging war which Igor of Kiev declared (920). There wasa siege of Kiev (968). The Pecheneg ambushed and killed Prince Sviatoslav I of Kiev (924). The Russian 'Primary Chronicle' claims that Pecheneg chief, Khan Kurya, then made Sviatoslav’s skull into a chalice. This apparently was not uncommon at the time. The Kievian Rusbegan to wea vdown the Pechenegs. Vladimir I of Kiev gained an imprtant victory (late-10th century) and to Yaroslav I the Wise (1036). The Pechenegs foundthemsevesconsantly at war. Theyfought the Bulgars, Kievian Rus’, Byzantines, Magyars, and Khazars (11th century). They suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Levounion (1091) Most of their army of 80,000 men was destroyed by an allied force of Byzantines and Cumans (1091). Byzantine Emperor, Alexios I Komnenos, recruited the surviving Pechenegs, who settled in northern Greece (modern Macedonia). But, most of Perchenegs were attacked by the Cumans (1094). The Byzantines attacked anddefeated them at the Battle of Beroia (1122). They werereduced to a very small number of srvivors. losing their national identity and assimilated by other tribes.

The Cumans (10th-13th centuries)

A new nomadic triber from Asia appeared on Kiev's southern borders. They were part of v a nomadic Turkish people--the western branch of the Kipchak confederation. They attacked Kiev and defeated the three sons of Yaroslav (Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod) on the river Alta, near Kiev. Later Vsyeslav of Polotzk (great-grandson of Vladimir) and Svyatovslav son of Yaroslav defeated the Cuman forces. They took Khan Sharukan as a prisoner. The Cumans were stopped, but not destroyed. They remained a constant threat on southeast borders of the Kievian state. Russian princes often hired Cuman forces for their internecine wars. The Cumans essentially acted as auxiliary troops for the Russian princes and in that capacity clashed with Mayayar raids. It was prince Vladimir Monomakh who finally ended the internecine wars between Russian princes. He organized several successful war campaigns against the Cumans (1094-1111). While never totally destroyed them, he severly weakened them and for a time peace prevailed on the southeastern border. They became more aggressive and launched raids into southeastern Transylvania (early 13th century). To make his people morevacceptableto the Hugarians, Cuman prince Barc and 15,000 of his people were baptized (1227). The first bishopric of Cumania was created (1228). King Béla IV of Hungary assumed the title 'king of Cumania'. He granted asylum to the Cumans and with prince Kuthen. The Mongol invasion forced the Cuman them to seek asylum in Hungary. Kuthren attemted, but failed to organize Kievian resistance to the Mongols (1239). He was never fully trusted by the Hunarians and was murdered. The Cuman left Hungary. The Mongols invaded Hungary (Spring 1241). It was a catastrphe. The Mongols ravaged Hungary for a year, inflicting unimagined devastation. Only a few highly fortified places and impenetrable swamps and forests held out. About half the popuation prerished. In some areas the entire poplation was lost. Only parts of Transylvania and the northwest swere not devestated. King Bella took refuge in Dalmatia. He returned (1242). Given the devestaion, Béla began to be called the country's second founder. Understanding that the Mongols would return, he reorganized the army and began bulding a chain of fortresses. He began attracting new settlers to repopulate depopulated areas. Geven the danger, he allowed the Cumans who be valuable when the Mongols returned (1245). Prince Stephen married a Cuman princess to cement an alliancve. He auumed the throne as Stephen V. Under his rule and that of his son Ladislas IV/László (1272–90), the Cuman were an influential force in Hungary. It would, howevr, be centuries before the Cumans were fully assimilated.

Seljuk Turks (11th-13th century)

The Seljuk Turks origenated in Central Asia coming from the Oghuz Turkic people he founder was a tribal warlord -- Seljuk (10th centuy). Je eas nstrumental in the converting to Islam (around 985). They migrated south and west fro Central Aia. They conquered Persia and established their capital in Eşfahān. The Seljuks succeded in buiding a major vast state stretching from Anatolia to Persia. They were innvolved in the Christain Crusades and played an imprtant role in reviving the Islamic power after the decline of the Caliphate. They helped set the stage for the rise of the Ottomans. The Seljuk Eempire was founded by the Seljuk Clan Thery reached the greatest expamnse under Toghrïl and Alp Arslan. Toghrïl and his nephew Alp Arslan played ipotant roes in expanding the he empire. They won a key victory against the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Dandanakan (1040). he Seljuks were known for powerful, lightly armored cavalry, armed with composite bows. This was deadly eapon in Steppe warfare. They were the first Islamim power after the decline of the Caliphate. The Seljuks defended Sunni Islam. The rise of the Seljuk Empire and drive into Anatolia led to the in Nyanine pleing or European assuastancve and theresulting First Crusade. They were a significant combatant in the Crusades, achieving notable victoiesagainst the Crusaders, especially during the Second Crusade. The Seljuks with thetAsian Steppe culture successfully adopted tohe substantially differeny Prersian -Greek culture. heir rule in Anatolia negan he Islmiaion of the regio easing the adavance of the Ottoman Empire, which followed them. The Seljuk Empire began to weaken becuse of the difficult in administering such a large area. A major problem was internal divisions created by dividing the Empire among the leaders' heirs. This led to a fragmention of the Empire into smaller states. The Mongol invason led by Genghis Khan and his successors destroyed what was left of the Seljuk kingdoms (13th century).

Ottomans

Mongol Empire

The Steppe people of central Asia have played a huge role in world history. How these nomads developed sophisticated tactics to rival and often overwhelm the settled people in the Euro-Asiatic landmass is one of the great stories of history. They extorted vast wealth from Chinese empires through a range of expedients, including pillage, tribute, trade, and congest. Often they primarily impacted China. The Mongols are but one of these people, but by far the best known. This is because they not only invaded and conquered China, but struck west and entered Europe. This occured just as Europe was emerging from the medieval era and as a result of the Renaissance entering the modern age. The Mongols came very close to ending that process. Hardened by the great central Asian steppe, the Mongols developed as superb horsemen and warriors. Temudjin/Genghis Kahn united the Mongol tribes and was proclaimed Khan (1205). Genghis Khan managed to end the tribal warfare, forging alliances with the various clans and tribes of the Steppe. One account claims that resisting tribes he slaughtered all those taller than the height of a cart axle. He then unified the tribes and built a very powerful, highly mobile army. This left all the nomadic tribes of Mongolia under his rule (1205). He and his family ruled a rigidly disciplined military state. Under Genghis there was a fusion of Mongol and Turkic elements. As a result, Steppe people of Central Asia have played a huge role in world history. Genghis from his Mongolian homeland conducted a series of military campaigns which created the largest land empire in human history. Genghis led what was described at the time as the Mongol hordes. His greatest challenge in building that army was unifying the warring Steppe tribes. There the biggest obstacle was the Turkic tribes. In fact the Mongol army commonly was smaller than the armies that they defeated. Although a relatively small population, the Mongols established the most extensive empire in history, stretching from Korea to Eastern Europe. Only the Japanese successfully defied the Mongols. The Mongols also conquered and influenced many of the major world powers, China, India, Persia, and Russia. The Mongol Empire eventually extend from the Pacific to Eastern Europe. Only the Japanese successfully defied the Mongols. The Mongols conquered and influenced many of the major world powers, China, India, Persia, and Russia

Golden Horde (13th-14th centuries)

The goldren Horde was the Russian terrn for the for the Ulus Juchi-- the western part of the Mongol Empire, including areas in Eastern Europe and Central. The Mongils seized the area (mid-13th centyry) when the Mongols destroyed Kievian Rus. Theyheld therea through (14th century). The population included a mixture of Turks and Mongols, with the Mongols making up the aristocracy. The borders were poorly defined. Genghis Khan turned the area tomhis eldest son, Juchi who died (1227). His son Batu was mreofva warrior. He expand Mongol territory, executing brilliant nmanuvers and terrifying actions, imcluding sacking and burning Kyiv ito the ground (1240). The territory at the peak extended from the Carpathian Mountains in eastern Europe to the Sibrerian steppe. The southern border was the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, and Mongol contolled Il-Khans. Batu established his capital, Sarai Batu, on the lower Volga. He later decided to move the capital further north to Sarai Berke. It became a mjor city reaching over half a million people. This was a cosiderable nmber ar the tim. Following the conquest, the ruling class was steadily Turkified, as few Mongols moved ito he area after the conquest. And the Hode was Islamized. The the greatest khan was Öz Beg (1312–41). The Turkic tribes was primarily focused on animal husbandry on the Steppe. The subject population onsisted of East Slavs, Mordvinians, Greeks, Georgians, and Armenians had to pay tribute. The Russian princes were given responsibility for collecting taxes, This is how Muscovy rose in importance. The Horde conducted trade with Mediterranean peoples, especiall fellow Muslims in Mamaluk Egypt as well as the Genoese. The Battle of Kulikovo fought by Grand Prince Dmitry of Moscow was a pivotal event in Russian history (1380). It was the first Russian over Mongol rule and the Golden Horde. It was also was a major step in the rise of Moscow as a leader among the Russian principalities and the beguinning of the centralized Tsarist state. It did not end Mongol rule, but it wa rge beginnong of the end of Mongol influence in the region. The Goldren Horde began desintegrating ed into several Tartar (Turkic) knanates.

Tatars

The term Tartars has various uses. The name Tatar first beganto beused among nomadic tribes speaking Tutic languages living in northeastern Mongolia and the area around Lake Baikal (5th century AD). Today Turkic people are generally associated with Anatolia and western Asia. Notice that here Turkic speaking tribles in Momgolia. Turkic tribes helped drive the Volga Bulgars west into he Blkans. These Turkic tribes seem related to the Cuman/Kipochak people. Genghis Khan managed to end the tribal warfare, forgian aliance with the various ckans and tribes of the Steppe. His greatest challenge were the Turkic tribes which he defeated and broght intyo his condeeration. One account bclaims he slaughtered all those taller than the height of a cart axle. He then ctrated anuinfied and very powerful, higly mobil army. This left all the nomadic tribes of Mongolia under his rule (1206). He and his family ruled a rigidly disciplined military state. Under Genghis there was a fusion of Mongol and Turkic elements. And in the West the Mongol invaders of Russia and Hungary became known to Europeans as Tartars. This was in par beause as you move wes ino ope, the Turjic part of the Seppe people became more pronouned. After Genghis' empire broke up, the Tatars became especially identified with the western part of the Mongol domain, which included most of European Russia and was called the Golden Horde. These Tatars were converted to Sunni Islām (14th century). Internal disputs and military advances by Mucovy the Golden Horde disintegrated (late-14th century). Independent Tatar khanates emeged: Kazan and Astrakhan on the Volga River, Sibir in western Siberia, and Crimea. Tsaris Russia conquered the first three of these khanates (16th century), but the Crimean khanate coninued to resist as a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire. Catherine the Great finally annexed it (1783).

Sassanids.

Persians

Created: 2:25 AM 11/4/2025
Last updated: 2:25 AM 11/4/2025