Figure 1.--Civil war broke out in Somalia (1991). The United Nations attemoted to restore order. The U.N. Operation Somalia II (UNOSOM II) was the second phase of the United Nations intervention in Somalia (March 1993 - March 1995). Here we see a scene in Mogadishu (1993). The press caption read, A young Somali child and German U.N. soldier watch the unloading of the 'Hugo Oldendorff' [a cargo ship] at Mogadishu port 19 Aug. The troops will then move to Belet Huen where the German contingent is based."

Britain and Italy granted independence to their respective colonies (1960). The two colonies became the unuted Republic of Somalia. Independent Somalia consists of coastal lowlands and a largely arid interior plateau. Somalia severed diplomatic relations with Britain when the British granted the Somali-populated Northern Frontier District of Kenya to the Republic of Kenya (1963). There was also a border problem with Ethiopia--the Ogaden Desert. This was an area that had been seized by Ethiopia early in the 20th century. The lightly populated border area was never well-defined during the colonial era. President Abdi Rashid Ali Shermarke was assassinated and the army seized power (1969). Maj. Gen. Mohamed Siad Barre became the new president. He moved Somalia toward the Soviet Union. The Soviets saw the geopolitical importance of the country and a regional counter balance to Ethiopia, a staunch American ally. The Soviets proceeded to heavily arm the Somali Army. Boslstered by Soviet arms, Barre proceeded to retake the Ogaden. The Ogaden War which combined historic ethnic and cultural differences with Cold war politics. Barre openly supported ethnic Somali rebels in easternmost Ethiopia--the Ogaden Desert. Barre sent his tanks into the region. This was essentially a contunuation of historic conlicts between Somali nomads and Ethiopia. This time the Somalis were heavily armed with modern Soviet weaponry. The resulting Ogaden War, however, proved a disaster for Somalia when, as a result of a revolution in Ethiopia, the Soviets shited sides. The Ethiopians with Cuban support smashed the Somali Army in the Ogaden. Barre lost much of his 32,000-man army and most of its tanks, planes, and other Soviet-supplied equipment. President Barre fled the country (1991). This left Somalia in the hands of largely clan-based guerrilla groups with historic animosities. Somalia has descended into anarchy.

Independence

Britain and Italy granted independence to their respective colonies (1960). The two colonies became the unuted Republic of Somalia. Independent Somalia consists of coastal lowlands and a largely arid interior plateau.

Clan Divisions

The comcept of Somali nationality was anew concept> This was the case throughout much of African in the post-World War II de-colonial era where tribal loyalties were the strongest bonds. In Somalia it was clan bonds that were important. And Somali clans were more accustomed to competition than cooperatoion. The Hawiye Clan dominated the south central area. The capital of Mogadishu is located in the area dominated by the Abgaal, a Hawiye sub-clan. The Hawiye in terms of numbers are approximately equal to the Isaaq, outnumbered by the Daarood clans. Southern Somalia's first prime minister during the U.N. trusteeship period was Abdullaahi Iise, a Hawiye. The trust territory's first president, Aadan Abdullah Usmaan, was also a Hawiye. The first commander of the Somali Army, General Daauud, was another Hawiye. A Hawiye had not held any major office since independence. The had been appointed to important administrative positions in the government as well as top army command.

Border Issues (Early-1960s)

Somalia severed diplomatic relations with Britain when the British granted the Somali-populated Northern Frontier District of Kenya to the Republic of Kenya (1963). There was also a border problem with Ethiopia--the Ogaden Desert. This was an area that had been seized by Ethiopia early in the 20th century. The lightly populated border area was never well-defined during the colonial era. This set up major issues with the two neigboring states. The Somali government from the point of independence supported the concept of self-determination and unity for the people of the Somali-ethnic populated areas of Ethiopia (the Ogaden), northern Kenya, and French Somaliland (Djibouti). The vresult early on was border clashes with Ethiopia and Kenya.

Army Coup: Mohamed Siad Barre (1969)

Abdirashid 'Ali Shermarke was elected president (1967). He was assassinated (October 15, 1969). Army commanders 6 day later supported by the police 6 days later. The Military commanders leaders proceeded to dissolve Parliament, suspended the Constitution, arrest members of Shermarke' cabinet, and changed the official name of the country to the Somali Democratic Republic (SDR). This was the beginning of single-party rule. he Army commander, Maj. Gen. Jalle Mohamed Siad Barre, was designated chairman of a 25-member Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC). The SRC assumed the powers of the president, the Supreme Court, and the National Assembly. Siad Barre was subsequently named president. Like many early African leaders in the de-colonization era, Barre had the vague idea without any real study that socialism meant a fast track to a modern future. Barre proclaimed 'scientific socialism' as the republic's guiding ideology. This loosely Marxist concept stressed hard work and public service. And the SRC was composed of men with mininal educations, was designated as fully compatible with Islam. The SRC ordered the nationalization of industries and large firms, especially foreign banks and oil companies. This was the beginning of the decline od the Somali economy. The SRC organized 'self-help' projects to clean up the towns and villages, build roads and sidewalks, dig new wells and build irrigation canals, open infirmaries and schools, and stabilize sand dunes. We do jot have a real assessment of theis self-help iniative. The SRC proclaimed the adoption of a Latin script for Somali, replacing Arabic (1972). It launched a literacy campaigns (1973). The drought that affected large areas of the African Sahel (1968-73) became a erious problem in Somalia in (late-1974). The , and in November of that year, the SRC declared a state of emergency, set up relief camps, and began food rationing (November 1974).

Cold War: Soviet Ally

Barre moved Somalia toward the Soviet Union. The British played a major role in drawing the boundaries. And Ethiopia was an Amerivam ally. Thus the only way to change the boundaries like Barre wanted was to get outside help. He thus became involved in the Cold War. And the Soviets were a potentialm source of weapons. The Soviets saw the geopolitical importance of the country. It not only represented a regional counter balance to Ethiopia, a staunch American ally, but the potential for strategic naval bases for the expamding Soviet Navy. Somalia juts out into the Indian Ocean toward the Arabian Peninsula and domiantes the southern approaches to the Suez Canal. Soviet influence in Somalia thus grew after they promised to provide massive military aid (1962). The Soviets proceeded to heavily arm the Somali Army. The United States charged that the Soviets were building a military installation at the port of Berbera (1975). The Somalia Government denied the charges and invited inspection by journalists and American congressmen. They reported evidence of Soviet missile-handling facilities there. Somali officials did acknowledge receipt of Soviet military and technical advisers. Meanwhile, Ethiopia expressed concern that a Somalia Army equipped with heavy weapons represented a threat to its security. Barre respnded by formally recognizing the Western Somali Liberation Front in the Ogaden. This was esentoally the beginning of the Ogaden War.

Ogaden War (1977-78)

Boslstered by Soviet arms, Barre proceeded to retake the Ogaden. The Ogaden War which combined historic ethnic and cultural differences with Cold war politics. Barre openly supported ethnic Somali rebels in easternmost Ethiopia--the Ogaden Desert. Barre sent his tanks into the region. This was essentially a contunuation of historic conlicts between Somali nomads and Ethiopia. This time the Somali were heavily armed with modern Soviet weaponry. The resulting Ogaden War, however, not only generated another African refugee crisis, but proved a disaster for Somalia. As a result of a revolution in Ethiopia, the Soviets shited sides. The Ethiopians with Cuban support smashed the Somali Army in the Ogaden. Barre lost much of his 32,000-man army and most of its tanks, planes, and other Soviet-supplied equipment.

Momentous Shifts (1980s)

The Soviet Uniin after a left-wing military coup in Ethiopia, shifted its support to Ethiopia, a larger potentially more important country. As a reult of this and the inserion of Cuban combat forces, the Somalis were defated in the Ogaden. Barre proceeded to cut ties and expel the Soviets (1980). Barre oversaw a new constitution (1979). Barre carefuly selected A list of 171 candidates for the People's Assembly. They were elected unopposed (December 30, 1979). The Assembly then retuned the favor and elected Barre unanimously to a new term as president (January 1980). Unopposed elections were again orchestrated (December 1984.) Barre declared a state of emergency and reestablished the SRC (October 1980). He was responding tom a threat from the Marxist Ethiopian Government, the reverse of the crisis he he had earlier fomented in the Ogaden. The Ethiopins were backing the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF). Barre ended the state of emergency (March 1982). A few months later the faltering insurgent threat was revived by 10,000 Ethiopian troops invaded Somalia. They only managed to secure a small area. To settle the dispute, Barre met with Ethiopia's left-wing military dictator, Lt. Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam, in Djibouti (January 1986). Two other meetings of Somali and Ethiopian officials followed (May and August 1986). They were unable to reach any understanfing. Barre again ran unopposed, this time in a direct presidential election (December 1986). Barre appointed a prime minister, his irt such step -- Lt. Gen. Mohamed 'Ali Samater, the first vice president and minister of defense. Despite Ethiopian support, the SSDF had basically collapsed (late-1986). But this did nit end Barre's problems. A diferent insurgent group, the Somali National Movement (SNM) had opened up a new frint in the north (the former British Somaliland). And relations between Somalia and Ethiopia deteriorated further (December 1987). The Ethiopians attacked six Somali settlements. As a result of the Soviet shift to supporting Ethiopian side, American-Somali relations became closer during the presidebcy of Ronald Reagan (1981-89). The two countries signed a 10-year agreement providing American forces access to naval and air facilities at Berbera and U.S. military and economic assiatance. The United States offered some $80 million in military and economic aid (1982). Barre agreed to allow the United States use of air and naval facilities at the northern port of Berbera, ironically facilities that the Soviets had built. Barre also offered facilities at Mogadishu.

Barre's Fall (1991)

Military operations were expensive. The expenditures for the inconclusive control of the Ogaden aversely affected both countries. The Ethiopian and Somalian Governments with drained trasuries and facing growing armed internal resistance, decided to make peace. They pledged to respect the existing border. The situation in Somali, howver, had already spun out of control (1990). Barre's regime was losing control. Armed resistance from the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) had been revived by the Ethiopians, the Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA), the Somali Democratic Movement (SDM), the Somali National Movement (SNM), the Somali Patriot Movement (SPM), and the United Somali Congress (USC) were turning Somali into a battlefied and the Government's control was lipping away. These forces and the Somali Army behaved ruthlessly with atrocities, mostly against civilians, becoming routien. With high sounding names, in reality the various contending forces had a clan-based loyalyies. Each was led by a clan leader best described as local warlords. Humanitarian greoups were active in Somali since the Ogaden War and frought (1970s). These groups to cut off aid operatiins unless the atrocities ended and the security situation improved (1988). By the 1980s, the Hawiye were becoming increasgingly disatisfied with Siad Barre, feeling marginalized. And perceptions of disloyalty resulted in actual atrocities as the embattled Barre regime turned inceasinly violent. Barre Government atrocities were not only directed at the Hawiye. There were also similar actions targetting the Majeerteen and Isaaq. These actions would prove to be Barre's undoing. One source describes it as his 'fatal error'. Barre by late-1990 still controlled the capital and some adjacent areas, but by alienating the Hawiye, Barre turned his last stronghold into enemy territory. And his forces begam to have to deal with saboteurs and sniper. He ordered the remaining loyal Red Beret units to massacre civilians. They became known for torture and murder. IItalian-born Roman Catholic bishop, Salvatore Colombo, was gunned down in his Mogadishu church by an unknown assassin (July 9, 1989). He had been an vocal critic of the Barre regime. It was widely believed that barre ordered his assaination. The Bishop's murder was followed by the Red Beret action slaughtering 450 Muslims demonstrating against the arrest of their spiritual leaders (July 14). More than 2,000 demonstrators were seriously injured. The Red Berets then took 47 people, mainly from the Isaaq clan, to Jasiira Beach west of the city and summarily executed them (July 15). There were earlier reports of atricities, but the July massacres so openly conducted negan a shift in United Sates policy. The loss of American support, only made the regime more desperate. An anti-Barre demonstration at the main stadium turned into a riot. Barre's bodyguard panic and opened fire on the demonstrators in what became known as the Stadia Corna Affair. Some sixty-five people were killed. Only a few days later, Barre Barre sentenced 46 prominent members of the Manifesto Group to death (July 6, 1990). The Group was 114 notables who had signed a petition in May calling for elections and improved human rights. During the show trial that resulted in the death sentences, demonstrators had surrounded the court in protest. Normal activity in the city came to a near halt. Barre was beginning to realize that he had lost control. He dropped the charges against the accused (July 13). The city reupted in a victory celbratiion. He withdrew into his bunker at the military barracks near the airport outside the city and away from the celebrating mob. Barre called for dialogue and perhaps ending single-party rule (March 1990). This was an admission of weakness and only spurred his opponent to further resistance. He was ousted and flews out of Mogadishu (January 1991). He left the suffering Somali people to sort out the mess he had created. The country was in the hands of largely clan-based guerrilla groups with historic animosities. Somalia has descended into anarchy.

Descent Into Anarchy (1990s-2010s)

The USC seized the capital of Mogadishu, but fighting in Somali continued. The SNM controlled much of the north and declared its territory the independent state of Somaliland. The USC split into two factions (December 1991). One faction headed by Ali Mahdi Muhammad, the interim president. The other actiin was headed by Gen. Muhammad Farrah Aideed. The plit was clan-based. The two commanders were from different sub-clans of the Hawiye clan. The fighting not only continued, but the feuding factions focused on civilians, uing food as a weapon. Their tactic was to prevent people from planting and harvesting their crops. Several hundred thousand Somalis perished in the resulting famine. Far more faced the spetre of starvation. Some 0.5 million starving Somalis fled to Kenya. The humanitarian groups in Somalia eere overwhealmed. Inadequate food and medical services were available. As a result, contagious disease spread in the refugee camps. The developing strategy and complete breakdown of all public services in Somali began to be reported in the Western media. The result was demands for the United Nations to intervene. Food relief that was sent was stolen by by the armed clan forces and simple looting. Hunaitarian groups were frustrated ny the asecurity sitiation and their personnel subjected to extortion. The United Nations Security Council passed a resolution to deploy an international military intervention (UNITAF-United Task Force) to safeguard relief operations (December 3, 1992). The United States was authorized to lead the operation. Aideed and Ali Mahdi, the two most important clan leaders, by the end of th month had pledged to stop fighting. The UNITAF spread out through the country. Violence at first decreased dramatically. Gradually however, gunmen began to appear again targeting the himanitarian shipments.

Sources

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Created: 10:11 AM 6/10/2019
Last updated: 10:11 AM 6/10/2019