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The area of modern Guatemala was the birthplace of the ancient Mayan civilization. The Maya arose in the Guatemalan highlands. The Maya was one of the great Meso-American cultures. They flourished not in Guatemala, but and surrounding regions especially the Mexican Yucatan during the first millennium A.D. The Maya were in a state of decline when Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado overwealmed them, giving birth to modern Guatemala (1524). Alvarado was looking for another fabulously welthy Narive American Empire, but the Maya in Guatemala had declined from their earlier prominance. Almost all of Central America became a part of the Spanish Empire, including Guatemala. The sole exception was the Mosquito Coast where English castaways and settlers resisted the Spanish. After achieving independence from Spain, Guatemala became part of the United Provinces of Central America. When the union collapsed, Guatemala decided on an independent republic (1839). As in other Spanish colonies, there was no tradition of democracy in Guatemala. Unsurprisingly, the country failed to establish democratic rule. Like other Latin American countries, caudillos have played a major role. Guatemala's independent history was rule by a series of strongmen, refelcting the competition for power between various factions of the ruling elite. The country's landless Native American population was largely left out of the political pricess. Two particularly strong rulers dominated the history of independent Guatemala. A major figure in Guatemala's history was dictator Manuel Estrada Cabrera who comtrolled or strongly influenced the country for four decades (1898-1920). Gen. Jorge Ubico Castaneda ruled as another strongman (1931-44). Guatemala since World War II has had several military and civilian governments along with a 36-year guerrilla war. The pattern of Guatemalan history was finally shifted by the October Revolutionaries who overthrew Ubico (1944). Left-leaning students and professionals largely in Guatemala City helped install a liberal-democratic coalition governments led by Juan José Arévalo (1945–1951) and Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán (1951–1954). These governments instituted social and political reforms which sought to assist the peasantry and urban workers. The reform program alienated the military and big landowners who had previously dominated the country. One of the leading landowners was the United Fruit Company. Col. Carlos Castillo Armas organized a coup (1954). The United States involved in the Cold War with the Soviets was concerned about Communism in Latin America and supported Castillo. Arbenz fled to Mexico. Castillo began a series of repressive regimes aimed at turning back the clock in Guatemala. This led to the outbreak of a civil war (1960). Some of the major players were military governments, right-wing vigilante groups, and leftist rebels who after the Cuban Revolution received support from Castro. The civil war lasted 36 years and was mark with a series of attricities, especially Army actions against Native Amrican communities. The Guatemalan civil war was the longest such conflict in Latin American. Right-wing death squads often connected to the Army murdered an estimated 50,000 leftists or perceived leftists and political opponents during the heighth of the conflict in the 1970s. The United States during the Carter Administration suspended military aid to the Guatemaln military because of the horendous human rights records. Estimates suggest more than 0.2 million were killed and may have created 1 million refugees. The government signed a peace agreement formally ending the conflict (1996).
Proto-Indians must have passed through Guatemala and the rest of Central America. Sites in SouthAmerica, including Monte Verde suggest settlement at about 12,080 BC, and some archeologists believe that the lowest layers are even older. These dates would pre-date the Bearing Sea Land Bridge--Beringia and Ice Age Migrations. This has up set established scenarios of America's settlment. As a result, the pre-history of the Americas is still in flux. To date archaeologists have only confirmed remains in Guatemala that are roughly in conformity with the early established theories on the human settlement of the Americas (10,000 BC). Some archaeologists now claim that obsidian arrow heads suggest an earlier dates (18,000 BC). There is considerable debte, however, to this dating. Early humans in what is now Guatemala were hunters and gatherers, but gradually began to develp agriculture. Archaic sites have been documented in Quiché in the Guatemalan Highlands and Sipacate, Escuintla on the central Pacific coast (6500 BC). Here the important step was the development of maize (corn). This was a vital step because corn is the most efficent plant in the conversion of sunlight which is why today it is a key component of modern agriculture. Pollen samples from the Guatemalan Petén and the Pacific coast substatiate the fact that that maize was being cultivated (3500 BC). This appears to have been a development occuring theoughout Meso-America, perhaps beginning in the Central Valley of Mecico. Corn would be foundation for the Mayans and other Meso-American cultures. Archaeologists have found small settlements were developing in Guatemala’s Pacific lowlands (2500 BC) This includes sites suchas Tilapa, La Blanca, Ocós, El Mesak, and Ujuxte. The oldest ceramic pottery in Guatemala has been found at these sites. There is an important concentration of pottery found along the Pacific coast (2000 BC). Archaeolohists in recent years have found additional sites which appear to form a geographic and temporal bridge between Preclassic villages of the Pacific coast and the subsequent Petén lowlands cities.
The area of modern Guatemala was the birthplace of the ancient Mayan civilization. The Maya arose in the Guatemalan highlands. The Maya was one of the great Meso-American cultures. They flourished not only in Guatemala, but and surrounding regions especially the Mexican Yucatan (first millennium AD). The Maya occupied a vast geographic area in Central and South America, the largest area of any Meso-American civilization,although there was never a centralized Mayan Empire--rather a series of imprtant city states (2000 BC - 1500 AD). The Mayan culture as opposed to empire spread to what is now southern Mexico, Guatemala and Belize as well as areas of Honduras and El Salvador. The Classical Period of the Mayan civilization was centered in Guatemala (3rd-9th centuries AD). During this era, the Maya built stunning temples, pyramids and cities. They forged a complex social and political order.
Important, but not well preserved sites dot the Guatemalan Highlands. The best preserved Guatemalan site is Tikal in Petén. This is part of the latter or Post-classical Mayan period that emerged in Petén and the Mexcan Yuctan. The Mayans excelled in agriculture, architecture, art, astronomy, mathemtaics, and pottery. And they developed a written language. Historians still debate the collapse of the Maya, but is often seen as a result of growing popultions which could not be supported by the ecosystem. Of course the Maya never disappeared. The decedents of the Maya constitute something like half of he country's modern population.
Spanish Conquistaor Hernán Cotez began his conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519). Only 4 years later, one of his lieutenants, Pedro de Alvarado, began the conquest of the Maya to the south. The Maya were in a state of decline when Alvarado overwealmed them, giving birth to modern Guatemala (1524). Alvarado was looking for another fabulously welthy Native American Empire, but the Maya in Guatemala had declined from their earlier prominance. The Spanish encountered the Maya centuries after their classical era, unlike the Aztec and Inca who were in their acendancy. The conquest of Central America is primarily the story of the conquest of the Maya states in northern Central America. There were, however, other tribes further south, mostly primtive peoples. Alvarado was one of the most ambutious and cruel of the Conquistadores--which is saying quite a bit. The strongrst and most tribes in Central America were located in the highlands of Guatemala and El Salvador. These were the Maya and related states. Alvarado reached Guatemala traveling down the Pacific coast (1523). He commanded a relatively small force made up of a few hundred horsemen, soldiers, and Native American allies.
Almost all of Central America became a part of the Spanish Empire, including Guatemala. Most of Central America became part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. This consisted of a large area from the Soconusco region (now the southern Mexican states of Chiapas and Tabasco) south to Costa Rica. Unlike areas to the north and south. The Captaincy General was not endowed with the precious metal (gold and silver) that the Conquistadores found in Mexico and Peru. It was as a result not seen by the Spanish as a very important part of their Empire. The Spanish colonial economy was based on agriculture. The principal crops were sugarcane, cocoa, blue añil dye, red dye (cochineal insects), and precious woods used in artwork for Spanish churches. The Spanish as was their practice, chose the inland highlands fpr their capital, both for security reasons and for moderate climate. Guatemala and Central America is, however, located along the Pacidic Ring of Fire where tectonic plates meet and earhquakes occur. The first colonial capital of Guatemala (modern Vieja) was destroyed by floods and an earthquake (1542). Survivors founded a second city of Guatemala, (modern La Antigua) (1543). The capital grew to become one of the richest in the Americas (17th century). Although Guatemala had little gold or silver, it proved to be a rich agricultural area. Antigua like Vieja before it was destroyed by two earthquakes (1773). Unlike Vieja, the remnants of its Spanish colonial architecture have been well preserved as a national monument. It is considered a "Patrimony of Humanity" by UNESCO. The third and modern capital, Guatemala City, was founded in the "Valle de Nuestra Señora de la Ermita" (1776). Antigua Guatemala was ordered to be abandoned by the Spanish colonial authorities. Many families, hoever, remained. The sole exception to the Spanish control of Central America was the Mosquito Coast. Here English castaways and settlers resisted Spanish control. And at the time there were no modern road connections betwen the Spanish settled areas (Pacific oast and Highlnds) and the Caribbean coast. Thus the Spanish colonial authorities were unable to gain control over this area. A factor here was that the region was considered unhealty and was seen of little value.
The Spanis colonial era ended with the Napoleonic Wars in Europe and the French occupation of Spain. This left Spain unble to support its colonial rule of the Americs and led to the Latin American Wars of Independence (1806-26). In Central America, the resistance to Spain began in Mexico. After achieving independence from Spain, there was a brief period of a Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide. Guatemala then became part of the United Provinces of Central America. When the union collapsed, Guatemala decided on an independent republic (1839). As in other Spanish colonies, there was no tradition of democracy or self rule in Guatemala. Unsurprisingly, the country failed to establish democratic rule. Like other Latin American countries, caudillos have played a major role. Guatemala's independent history was rule by a series of strongmen, refelcting the competition for power between various factions of the ruling elite. The country's landless Native American population was largely left out of the political prices.
Two particularly strong rulers dominated the history of independent Guatemala. A major figure in Guatemala's history was dictator Manuel Estrada Cabrera who comtrolled or strongly influenced the country for four decades (1898-1920).
Guatemalan President Estrada Cabrera had decidedly domestic motives for declaring war on Germany. Germans since the 1890s had begun to play a major role in the country's important coffee industry. The introduced modern agricultural methods and had significantly improved the industry. They also came to dominate it. This meant essentially that Germans controlled half the Guatemalan economy. German investments in infrastructure (utilities, transportation and communications) were bringing the country into the 20th century. President Cabrera was a true Latin Americn caudillo (military strong man). He was a dictator of the old school. His personal attitudes caused him to respect the Germans--especially the Prussian military tradition. The problem for him was that it was no fun to be a dictator (and less lucraive) if foreigners controlled the economy. For diplocatic reasons, they were more difficult to shake down than his fellow Guatemalans. Cabrera was also a realist. He had no desire to pick a fight with the United States. He had watched the Americans intervene throughout the Caribbean and Central America. The German Ambassador Kurt Lehman provided Estrda Cabrerra all the justifiction he needed to move against the Germans. Lehman was obsessed with the United States which even before entering the War was shipping vital supplies and war material to the Allies. Lehman helped to organize operations against the United States throughout Central America. One of his plots was to bring about a Mexican invasion of Guatemala. He also was involved in various other plots to foment coups and wars. His basic strategy was to divert American attention from Germany to Mexico and Central Americ. After the Zimmerman Telegtam, Americans were sensitive as to German interference to the south. When details of Lehman's activities surfaced, President Estrada Cabrera broke relations with Germany. He also made Guatemalan ports and railroads available for the use of the United States. Eventually the Guatemalan Assembly voted almost unanimously to become an associate of the United States in the war against Germany.
Gen. Jorge Ubico Castaneda ruled as another strongman (1931-44).
Fascism had some appeal to President Ubico and other dictators in Latin America. President Ubicio initially simply ignored World War II. Guatemala had one of Latin America's largest German immigrant population which was influential in government circles.
NAZI Germany's embassy in Guatemala City served as for Nazi propaganda and espionage in Central America. The Germany ethnic community was an imprtant support. NAZI propaganda focused on the superiority of German manufactured goods. NAZI propaganda also dealt on the claim that Germany was an important center for scientific research, climing that it had the 'world's most advanced educational system'. Guatemala had few Jews, but anti-Semitist thought was present in conservtive Catholic society. Beyond Jews, race was an important isue in Guatemala with its large Native American popultion. With the outbreak of the War, NAZI propaganda focused on German military victories and the superiority of its military equipment. The Salvadoran airline TACA was used for distrubting propagand as well as epionage. [Leonard. Honduras] Ulimately geography and America's predominant influence determined President Unicio's foreign policy. As in other Latin American countries, the economics of Fascism ultimately proved unfavorable. NAZI Germany chieved some sucesss in binational trade agreements. This helped increase the influence of the German ethnic community. Trade with Germany increased. With the outbreak of the War, however, the British Royal Navy cut off access to German ports (September 1939). As a result trade between Latin America and Germany essenbtially ceased. Guatemalsa and the rest of Latin Amerca had to turn t Brtain and more importantly the United state to replace the lost Germnan and lter Italian markets. [Leonard and Bratzel. Latin America] President Unicio, under increasing American pressure, delared a neutral status (September 1941). This was the first step in actng aganst NAZI influence which was pronounced among the German ethnic population. President Ubicio 5 days after declaring neutrality, prohibited NAZI propaganda. Shortly after, te Jpnes carier strike on Pearl Harbor brining America into the War, also chnge Gutaemala's status. Guatemal declred war on Japan (December 9, 1941). And then after Hitler declard war on America, Gautemala declared war on NAZI Germany and Fasicst Italy (December 12).
The United States in the 1950s, deeply involved in the Cold War with the Soviets was concerned about Communism in Latin America and supported Castillo who overthrew the President Arbenz. It is today unclear just where Arbenz was headed. He is today commomly depicted as a moderate reformer. This may be the case, but one should bear in mind tht Fidel Castro was also depicted as a moderate social reformer before he installed a Communist police state. The American support for Castillo is commonly deficted as American support for dictators (aling with Somoza, Trujillo,and others). There is some truth in this, but it should be viewed in the context of the Cold war. The Soviet Union recently acquiring the atomic vomb was challenging America around the world. To add to the Soviet challenge, China felltothe Communists (1949) and a shootig war erupted with the Communists in Korea (1950). While today we know the oucome of the Cold War, we did not in the 1950s. Many in Asia, Latin Ameica, and Afreica saw the Communiss as the wave of the future. Fidel Castro was just one of many. It is true that the United States did business with dictators during the Cold war. Less commonly pointed out is that outside of Europe, there wre few democrcies to do business with in the 1950s and 60s. It is intersting to note that the same authors who criticize America for doing business with dcttors do not raise any a wiff of critiscim boyt America's most massive support of any dictator--Joseff Salin responsible for millios of death and the terfying Gulag. America's resporces are not limitless. We needed help to defeat the Soviet Union. Perhaps it was a mistke to support dicttors, but the greatest mistake that could have been made would have been to fail to cinfrot and defeat the Soviet Union. And itneeds to be noted that the dictators wesuported are gone and deocracies are functioning in those countries. Many of the dictators that the Soviet nstalled or are responsible for are still in power and control abusive dicttorships (Belarus, Cuba, North Korea, Vietnam, and the Central Asian Stans).
Guatemala since World War II has had several military and civilian governments along with a 36-year guerrilla war. The pattern of Guatemalan history was finally shifted by the 'October Revolutionaries' who overthrew President Ubico (1944). Simmering unrest resulted in the killing of a schoolteacher by an Army soldier. This set off a broad-based general strike. It paralyzed the country and forced President Ubico to turn over to his generals. This did not placate the public. When unrest continued, two young officers Jacobo Arbenz and Francisco Javier Arana led a final coup to unseat the generakls sttill tied to Ubico.
The disident military officers, left-leaning students, and professionals largely in Guatemala City helped install what was purprtedly a liberal-democratic coalition governments. They were influenced by rising discent against unpopular dictatorships (Cuba, El Salvador, and Venezuela) at about the same time. The coup was led by Juan José Arévalo (1945–1951) and Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán (1951–1954) emerged vas Guatemnala's new kleaders. The October Revolutiinaries began instituting social and political reforms seeking to assist the peasantry and urban workers. In a surprise, but popular move, Arévalo and Arbenz
agreed to a general election. This began what in Guatemala is called The Ten Years of Spring--a period of free speech and political activity and discussion of land reform. There was popular hope that important steps could be made to make Guatemala a prospoerous country. Juan José Arévalo was elected president in a free election (1945). He continued as presidency until 1951. He was a former university professor who launched social reforms. He akso attempoted to open up the political process. He allowed new political parties and unions (with some restrictions) to organize. Arana and Arbenz were still popular figures at the time. They expected to soon succeed Arèvelo. Arana became inpatient. He launched a coup and was killed in the process. He was killed in an apparent arrest-gone-wrong. This essentially cleared the way for Arbenz. He won in a landslide general election (1951). Arbenz together with Arévalo contiunued to promote progressive measures. They ended all the old restrictions on political parties and labor unions. They also purging the Army of the remaining pro-Arana officers. One was Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas. Arbenz also oversaw the legalization of the Communist Party (1952). But Srbenz went beyond mere legalizatiin, he also began to involve Communidsts in the government decision-making process Arbenz began taking more radical steps, nationalizing and redistribute un-utilized land owned by the United Fruit Company (UFC). The UFC at the time played a central role in the Guatemalan economy. UFC began seeking upport from the U.S. Embassy and the Eisenhower Administration which was involved in the Cold war with the Soviets and worried abour Soviet influence in the Americas. It should be understood that thev Giatemalan Communist Party was not independent, but like other Communuist parties in yhe refioin, controlled by the Soviets. The Administration was especially concerned when the Arbenz Government began receiving arms from Communistv Czechoslovakia--a Soviet puppet state. This is when the Adminiustratiin advised by the CIA began thinking about Arbenz's removal.
Arbenz still had 2 years of his term left, but conservatiuve forces were increasinglky alarmed, especially with the growing Communist influence. Col. Castillo Armas began organizing a coup and the CIA-backed it -- Operation PBSUCCESS. Arbenz was ousted and went into exile, fleeing to Mexico.. Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas led the coup. CIA documents released during the CIA's brief "openness" initiative in the 1990s suggest that UFC did not play a major role in the Administration's action. It appoears to have been largely Cold War politics. Guatemalans varied on the action.
Many Guatemalsns supported the ideals of the 1944 October Uprising. Many busiunessmen and military officers were becoming increasongly concerned Arbenz was moving Guatemala toward Communism and hoped that moderate reforms could contine, but not Communist policiues.
The Guatemalan Civil War was the longest such conflict in Latin America, but only one of three such conflicts in Central America's Northern Triangle. It occurred at a time that Communism was thought by many to the key to creating a just and prosperous society. And began just as Fidel Castro was establishing his dictarorship in Cuba. Some of the major players were military governments, right-wing vigilante groups, left-wing hit squads, and leftist rebels who after the Cuban Revolution received support from Castro. The civil war lasted 36 years and was mark with a series of atrocities, especially Army actions against Amerindian communities. Right-wing death squads often connected to the Army murdered an estimated 50,000 leftists or perceived leftists and political opponents during the heighth of the conflict in the 1970s. Estimates suggest more than 0.2 million people were killed and may have created 1 million refugees. In the end the Communists and theur left0wing allies failed. And Guatemala was scarred the nightmare of Communist oppression as we see in Cuba, Venezuela, and other countries. The Mainstream media and left le=ning authors and university professors do not like to recount the human tragedies that unfolded in these countries and continue to unfold.
Vinicio Cerezo, a rare civilian politician in Guatemalan history, was the candidate of the Christian Democracy Party (1985). He won the first election held under the new constitution with almost 70 poercent of the vote. He assumed office (January 14, 1986). At his s inauguration, President Cerezo announced that his top priority would be to end the country's political violence and establish the rule of law in Guatemala. He instuituyte a range of leagl reforms including habeas corpus and amparo (court-ordered protection). He created a legislative human rights committee. And thgen he established the Office of Human Rights Ombudsman (1987). At the same time, the Supreme Court also launched a series of reforms to address corruption and better the efficency of the legal system.
These were the begging stepos leading to a peace agreement formally ending the conflict (1996).
Leonard, Thomas M. and John F. Bratzel. Latin America during World War II (Rowman & Littlefield: 2007).
Leonard, Thomas M. The History of Honduras. (ABC-CLIO: 2011).
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