Figure 1.--The Aztec corn god, Centeotl, was the son of Tlazolteotl and Piltzintecuhtli. Tlazolteotl was the eath goddess of human fertility and of sexuality. She was associated with the moon. Piltzintecuhtli was the solar deity. This seems a logical combination. Centeotl was the male consort of the corn goddess Chicomecoatl (Seven Snake)--the most important and ancient Aztec godess. In Aztec mythology, corn (cintli) was introduced to the world by Quetzalcoatl--the primordial god of creation. Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent, was one of the chief gods in the Aztec pantheon. Quetzalcoatl was seen as the giver of life. Along with Tezcatlipoca he created the world. The bearded Quetzalcoatl was also called the White Tezcatlipoca. Thus when the white, beared Spanish arrived, many Aztecs and associated tribes confused them with Quetzalcoatl who they were expeced to return. Cintli was associated with the group of stars today known as the Pleiades. In the Tonalpohualli (Aztec calendar), Centeotl is the Lord of the Day for days with number 7 (chicome) and the fourth Lord of the Night. Source: Museo Nacional de Antropología. Mexico City. Unfortunately we have no idea about where this sculpture was found, oher than Tláhuac, a suburb of Mexico City. The Mexican anthropologists are uncertain about when this was created, anytime in the late post-clasical period (1250-1521).

The Native Americans were still in the stone age when the Europeans arrived, but they had developed two crops that would profoundly reshape European society. One was the potato. The other was corn. Corn was one of the crops developed by man to found the first civilizations. It was the last, but proved to be the most important. Native Americans in Meso-America had developed modern corn and began using it about 8,500 (6,500 BC). It would be basis for all advanced civilizations in the Americas. Corn was perhaps the greatest feat of genentic engineering in human history. This is because developing modern corn from available grasses was much more difficult than developing wheat and barley. But we know virtually nothing about how this process occurred or how long it took, although the arrival of Native Americans in Meso-America establishes some prameters. Native Americans domesticated corn from wild grasses. Researchers have identified the corn genes that were Native Americans selected in the process of domesticating corn. The Native American cultivators bred the grassy plant teosinte for hardiness and better food quality. [National Science Foundation] This occurred thousands of years after grains were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia) giving rise to civilization. One researcher argues that the availavility of wild edible plant species suitable for domestication (wild wheat and pulse species) was one reason civilization first rose there. The difficulty of domesticating corn from teosinte was part of the reason that civilization in the Americas lagged the other important centers of civilization. [Diamond] The other reason that corn was important is that it is the most efficent plant convering sunlight into carbohydrates. We know more about where corn was developed--Meso-America. For years anthropolgists believed corn was developed in the Central Valley of Mexico. That is fairly well established by both archeological and DNA evidence, but in recent years the origins of corn has moved south from the Central Valley to the southern coast. It seems likely that it was the people who became the Zapotecs that first developed corn. Corn had the same impact in the Americas that wheat, brley, and rice had in the Old World. It was in Meso-America that civilization first developed in the Americas--basically because of the development of corn-based agriculture. The Maya even called themselves the "Corn People". Not only did corn expand harvests, it was also a more transportable food resource. This meant it could be nore easily traded which promoted commerce. It also mean that it could sustain conquering armies into distant lands. Corn gradually spread througout North and South America to be grown by most native American people. Civilization had developed in the Andes of South America based on an entirely different crop--the potato. It took some time for corn agriculture to spread south along thecoast of South America. But when it reached the coast of Peru it significantly increased agricultural productivity. The potato did not do well in warm, low elevarions. Corn did not do well in cold high Andes. But the two together enabled Native Americans in Andeaan areas to better utilize the available agricutral land. The major beneficiaries of this would be the Inca until the arrival of the Europeans. It would be the Inca that established the greatest of all the pre-Colombian Native American empires. While the Spanish were after gold, these two crops have had an infintely greater economic impact.

Native American Civilizations

Many Native Americans never evolved beyond the hunter-gather stage. Others civilizations developed sedentary agricultre. The first evidence of settled habitation is first noted in modern Mexico during the Archaic period 5000-1500 BC. Here we note corn cultivation, pottery and stone tools. The first sophisticated civilization in Meso-America was the rise of the Olmecs around 1500 BC - 300 AD during what is known as the Pre-Classical period. The Olmecs settled on the Gulf of Mexico Coast of central Mexico. Very little information has, however, been learned about them as is the case of other early Meso-American civilizatons. Many archeologists believe that it is the Olmecs that developed many of the characteristics features of Meso-American cultures, including sophisticated calendars and hieroglyphic writing. Archeologists have not definitively developed the relationship between the Olmec culture and the Maya and other Meso-American peoples. Notably high civilization in the Americas is not associatyed with major river valleys as was the case in Asia and Africa. It was in the Andean and Meso American culltural areas that agriculture, weaving, metal working, painted pottery, and other technological developments occurred and spread to other areas. The three best known of these agricultural civilizations (Maya, Aztec, and Inca) were contemperaneous with Medieval Europe. These civilizations are well known because they are the civilizations that the Spanish encountered. The three great civilizations were brought to am abrupt end in the early 15th century by Spanish Conquistadores. While we can admire the achievements of these advanced Native American civilizations. it must be remembered that cut off from Europe and Asia that they were still essentially stone age peoples, in part explaining why they fell so easily to small European military forces.

Plant Doestication

Native Americans were still in the stone age when the Europeans arrived, but they had developed two crops that would profoundly reshape World, especiallu European society. Cereals areparticularly important. Other crops such as peas, beans, and squash were domesticated, but only cereals are the key crop. Cereals can be produced on a vast scale as well as stored and transported. Thus the development of civilization is strongly associated with the development of agriculture, specifically cerel agriculture. The first major domesticated cereal crops were wheat and barley developed in Mesopotamia and adopted by Egypt an the Indus Valley peiople to develop major civilizations. The other was rice developed by China. The two major Ameicam food crop was was the potato and corn. Corn was thus one of the crops developed by man to found the first civilizations, in this case Meso-Americn civilizations. Corn was the last, but proved to be the most important. The potato was the basis for Andean civilizations, but by itself was not sufficent to support the development of major civilizations beyound the reach of local commnities. This changed when the corn developd in Meso-America reached what is now Peru and the Andean civilizations that had developed there.

Chronology

Native Americans in Meso-America had developed modern corn and began using it about 8,500 (6,500 BC). It would be basis for all advanced civilizations in the Americas. Corn was perhaps the greatest feat of genentic engineering in human history. This is because developing modern corn from available grasses was much more difficult than developing wheat and barley. But we know virtually nothing about how this process occurred or how long it took, although the arrival of Native Americans in Meso-America establishes chrinological parameters. Native Americans domesticated corn from wild grasses. Researchers have identified the corn genes that were Native Americans selected in the process of domesticating corn. The Native American cultivators bred the grassy plant teosinte for hardiness and better food quality. [National Science Foundation] This does not appear to have been a mandated process by any central authofity, but something cultivators naturally do. The same dynamis seems to have been at play in Mosopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, and China. This process in Meso-America occurred thousands of years after grains were domesticated in the Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia) giving rise to civilization. One researcher argues that the availavility of wild edible plant species suitable for domestication (wild wheat and pulse species) was one reason civilization first rose there. The difficulty of domesticating corn from teosinte was part of the reason that civilization in the Americas lagged the other important centers of civilization. [Diamond]

Location

We know more about where corn was developed--Meso-America. For years anthropolgists believed corn was developed in the Central Valley of Mexico. That is fairly well established by both archeological and DNA evidence, but in recent years the origins of corn has moved south from the Central Valley to the southern coast. It seems likely that it was the people who became the Zapotecs that first developed corn. This all seems to have taken place in Meso-America because as in the great river valleys, it was here that agricultural and climatic conditions were most supportive of low technology agriculture.

Importance

The reason that corn was especilally important is that it is the most efficent plant convering sunlight into carbohydrates. This is important because carbohydrates are essentially the building blocks of civilizaions. The more carbohydates you prpduce, the larger the population than can be suppotyed. Cities van develop, Armies can be ammassedd. And a population can be supported to develop writing and leaning and artisans to produce tecnology, art, and weapons. Corn did all od this in the America as wheat, brly,d rice did in the Old World. It was in Meso-America that civilization first developed in the Americas--basically because of the development of corn-based agriculture there. The Maya even called themselves the "Corn People". Not only did corn expand harvests, it was also a more transportable food resource. This meant it could be nore easily traded which promoted commerce. And it could be stored which provided insurance against crop failures. Tt also mean that it could sustain conquering armies into distant lands.

Spread North and South

Corn gradually spread througout North and South America and came to be grown by most native American people. Corn spread north, fist to wht is now the Mexican north and American Southwest and then east to the Wooldland people. Civilization sid not, however develop in wany of the North American areas. Civilization had developed in the Andes of South America based on an entirely different crop--the potato. It took some time for corn agriculture to spread south along the coast of South America. But when it reached the coast of Peru it significantly increased agricultural productivity. The potato did not do well in warm, low elevations. Here it was the temperature not the levation that was the importat factor. Corn did not do well in the cold high Andes. But the two together enabled the Native American peoples in Andeaan areas to better utilize the available agricutral potential. The major beneficiaries of this would be the Inca until the arrival of the Europeans. It would be the Inca that established the greatest of all the Native American empires.

Impact on Europe

While the Spanish were after gold, these two crops have had an infintely greater economic impact. At first it was the potato that had the most immediate impact. Wheat and barley were crops developed in the rather warm, dry climate of the Middle East. Thus it was not the ideal crop for northern Europe. As aresult yields in northrn Euroe wee lower and the danger of crop failures were the highest. It is one of the forces tht prompeted the Vilong outbrek from Scadanavia. This limied the population of Germany. It is one reason that Freance was throughout the Middle Ages such a great power. France has not only rich farm land, but the warm grwing conditions idea for wheat. The potato changes that equation, permiting a major increase in the German population. After the Napoleonic Wars, the locus of European power shifted from France to Germany. This siftt in population nd power would lead to three wars, easescalating in lengths and destructiveness (Franco-Prussian War, World War I, and World War II). Only the intervention of the United States which had developed agricultural production on an epic porportio would bring the European power situation back in ballance.

Sources

Diamond, Jared. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (1997).

National Science Foundation. "Scientists trace corn ancestry from ancient grass to modern crop," Press Release 05-088, May 27, 2005.

Created: 7:55 PM 4/9/2017
Last updated: 7:55 PM 4/9/2017