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After the NAZI take over in Germany (January 1933) refugeees began fleeing the country, both anti-NAZIs and Jews. Britain unlike France and the other countries bordering the Reich allowed few refugees into the country. The Kindertransport was a rare exception. With the outbreak of the War, the British interred Germans, Austrians, and Itlaians to investigate their loyalties. This included Jews and anti-NAZIs who were ofteninterred wih pro-NAZIs. The largest numbers of refugees were the children, eldlerly, and those in hospitals who were evacuated from the cities that the Luftwaffe would and did target. Adults were expected to remain in the cities at their jobs, but the children were evacuated. After the fall of Fance (June 1940), not only did Luftwaffe bombing begin, but invasion became a real possibility. A few children were evacuated overseas. This largely ended after some of the evacuees were lost to U-boat attacks. Even after the Blitz there were further ecavuations as the Germans began the V-1 and V-2 attacks. Relatively small number of European refugees were able to get to Britain. Just a the Channel stopped the Panzers, but also made it difficult for refugees to get to safety Britain. The British did attempt to assist the refugees at the end of the War. The effort to help the Dutch trapped beyond the Rhine under German control was a major effort.
Britain was a conservastive monarchy thast had been the back bone to European resisance to Naspoleon. Even so, it developed a lively free press. During the American Revolution, there had been extensive criticism of the Government and war effort. Britain had a longstanding tradition of offering refuge to individuals facing religious and political persecution. Thus during the 19th century, Britain attracted all kinds of radicals and political reformers seeking refugee from authorities in their home country. It is no accident that Karl Masrx wrote Das Kapitl in the British Library. There were even refugees from Republican France. Emil Zola after he attacked the Government for persecuting Captain Drefus. But these were individuals, not whole peoples.
Britain after World War I was bankrupt. The country also faced the problem of finding jobs for returned servicemen in an economy mking the diffiicult transitioin from war time to peace time. Parliament passed a new Immigration Law (1919). Britain had never as open to immigration as America, but the new law set much stricter limits on immigration. And the law made no special provision for individuals facing percecution foe ethnic, religious, or political reasons.
Adolf Hitler and the NAZIs seized conrol of Germany (1933). Britain and France had the capability of removing him from power. His initially moderate steps in foreign policy, however, disuaded the Allied government from intervening. And many in Britain and France had come to think that Germany had been treated to harshly at Versailles. There was widespread belief at the time that World War I had been a great mistake and war in Europe should nerver occur again. So even after Hitler acted mire foircibly and repudiasted the Versailles Treaty by intriducing conscription the Allies refused to act. Rather Prime Minister Chamberlain adopted a policy of apeasement, convinced that he could avoid another World War by placating the German F�hrer. Few in Government believed that Hitler really meant to bring about the radical redrawing of the political and ethnic map envisioned in Mein Kampof. The Jews in Germany were but Hitler's emmedisate target.
It is not know with any certainty if Hitler conceived the murder of European Jews from the onset of his political career or if the Holocaust evolved over time after he seized power in 1933. We do know that Hitler spoke of the "extermination" of the Jews and described them as "racially unfit". This was not, however, widely seen in Germany as meaning he planned to murder German, let alone European Jews. President Hindenburg named NAZI leader Adolf Hitler Chancellor of Germany (January 1933). The first steps taken by Hitler was against the Cmmunists and Socialists, but actions against the Jews followed soon after. Hitler in his actions against Jews proceeded carefully, but relentlessy. There were three basic stages in NAZI policy. It is unclear to what extent these policies were conceived from the beginning as opposed to evolving overtime. The first stage was to restrict Jews ability to make a living in an effort to incourage them to emmigrate. Steps were taken to remove Jews from position of influence. The second stage was to segregate the Jews by denying their citzenship. Here the repressionn of Jewish children began when they were expelled from schools. The NAZIs also began confiscating Jewish property. The third stage was to deport Jews and incklude a more severe repression beginning with Kristallnacht. The fourth stage was the murder of the Jews. It is not precisely when Hitler made this decession.
When Hitller seized power, many Jews and anti-NAZIs attemopted to flee. Britain was as country that many would have liked to enter. Some succeeded. After the initial exodus, many German Jews decided thast they might be able to live under NAZI rule. Britain,Many German Jews as the NAZI regime closed in on them studied English, hoping to get to Britain or America. Britain made no special destinction, however, for Jews facing NAZI percecution. The overll immigratiion quotas were small and Jews received no special treatment. The Depression created further impediments to immigration.
The refugees that were allowed in were permitted to enter on a temporary basis. The British public as ahole were generally sympathetic to refugees. The principal aid, however, came from Britain's small Jewish community. They set up refugee aid organizations. The Jewish Refugee Committee (JRC) was especially important. The principal concern expressed by the Government was the cost of supporting large numbers of refugees. JRC Director Otto Schiff and the chairmen of the Board of Deputies of British Jews, Neville Laski and Leonard Montefiore, met with Government officials (April 1933). They assured Government officials that the British Jewish community would support the refugees entering Britain financially at no cost to the Government. They expressly assured officials that no refugee would become a burden on the government. Britisj Jews met that commitment. Until the beginning iof World War II, Britain's Jewish organizations supported the thousands of Jewish refugees that succeded in entering Britain, proividing finances, housing, education, job training, and help with permanent relocation through further emigration.
The Chamberlasin Government's commitment to appeasement meant that anti-NAZIs making sppeches and publishing anti-NAZI material were an embarrassment. Thus after the capitulation to Hitler at Munich, the Governmrent refused to offer refugee to anti-NAZI Sudeten Germans. And the NAZIs demanded thst the Czechs turn them over.
Unlike France, the British allowed very few refugees from the Spanish Civil War to enbter.
The NAZIs with the Nuremberg Racial Laws stripped Jews of their German citizenship and layed the legal basic for legal actiions to steal their property. It was Kristanacht, however, thast made it clear to German Jews and the rest of the world thast there was no place for Jews in Germany. Kristallnacht or the "Night of Broken Glass" was a vicious NAZI pogrom directed at NAZI Jews. A Polish-born Jewish Jew, Sendel Grynszpan, wrote to his soon describing how he had been expelled to Poland and mistreated. His son Herschel was a 17-year old youth living in Paris. Disdraught by his parents' treatment, he shot the Third Secretary of the German Embassy, Ernst vom Rath. As a reprisal, Hitler personally approved a massive assault on Germany's Jews in their homes and attacks on Jewish stnagoges. The attacks began early on November 10. Members of the Gestapo and other NAZI organizations such as the SA and the Labor Front were told to repprt to the local NAZI Party office and were given their instructions. They then moved out ramsacking Jewish shops and synagoges and setting firm to them. Groups of NAZIs broke into Jewish homes, looting them and destroying property that they did not want. Pets were killed. About 30-100 Jews were killed. About 20,000 mostly men were dragged off to the Buchenwald, Dachu, and Sachsenhausen concentration camps. The orgy of violence exceed even what the NAZIs had palnned. This was of copncern because the NAZIs hoped to eventually seize the property. The Jews were thus required to repair the danage to their shops and homes. When the NAZIs realized that Jewish property was insured, Goering issued a decree requiring that insurance payments made to the German Government. An additional 1 billion mark fine was imposed on the Germany Jewish community.
After Kristallnacht, sympathetic pro-refugee groups and some members of Parliament tried to convince the Government to change its restriuctive vimmigration policy and make special provision for refugees from NAZI Germany. Britain did ease its immigration regulations. More than 80,000 Jewish refugees managed to reach reached Britain before the NAZIs invaded POland and World War II began (September 1939). Especially notable was the Kindertransport. A British reader reports, "Brownsea Island in WW2 had an interment camp for people fleeing the Nazis. There were two large tents erected. One for males and the other for Females and children. Conditions were primitive. It was intended as a short stay processing facility. Unfortunately it took longer to process the the refugeese. They stayed about a week and had to sleep on the floor. A bit inhuman to separate families. There was only a short account in the guide book."
The British Government after declaring war on NAZI Germany, banned all immigration from Germany and Nazi-controlled territories. The NAZIs even before the outbreak of the War had began to make it difficult for Jews to leave Germany. After the fall of France it was virtually impossible for German Jews or Jews in NAZI-occupied Europe to reach Britain. Only about 10,000 Jewish refugees suceeded in reaching Britain dutuing the War.
The British restricted immigration during the War for security reasons. When Britaun declared war on Germany, German Jews became enemy alienes. The NAZIs did not consider Jews German citizens. The British did. Reaching Britain saved the lives of the lucky few, but the onset of the War creatted many difficultues for them. Because of their temporary immigration status, German Jews had trouble finding work, especially decent jobs. Many employers did not want to hire Germans. Thus many highly educated people had to work as domestics or laborers. After the German Western offensive and fall of France (June 1940), the British public began to panic. Many including Churchill thought that German inavsion was imminent and tere was very little to stop them. Anyone with a German accent was suspect as a possible spy. the British government began interning Germans and Austrian nationals (including refugee Jews) as enemy aliens. This did not include the Kindertransport children, exept the older ones who had turned 17. The British interned about 30,000 people in several camps. The refugees were not the only Germans in Britain. There were also German residents, some of whom were security risks. The British Government was left with the problem of sortung out Nazis and anti-NAZIs from the Germans in Britain. Thus German Jews were often interbed along with NAZI-oriented Germams. The problem was compounded by the fact hat most German Jews were throughly assisimated. They spoke German without an accent and until the advent of the NAZIs. Many middle age German Jews had decorations from World War I. The NAZIs had trouble destinguishing Jews. (Which is why the yellow stat of David badges were introduced.) And the British had the same diffiuculty, destinguishing Jews from other Germans.
Authorities deported about 8,000 of these enemy aliens to Canada and Australia. Some were killed when their ships were torpedoed by German U-boats. After the Basttle of Britain and the threat of a German invasion declined, the internees were released. Some of the deportees managed to return to Britain.
Small numbers of British subjects were resident in Axis countries and Axis-occupied Europe. TYhis included British women who maried German, Italians and other Europeans. We are not sure what German policy was to the British natioals. We know that the Italians interned the British subjects.
The only British territory occupied by the Germans was the Channel Islands. As France was falling, the inhabitants were given the chance to evacuate. Many boiasrded the evacuastions ships. Others decided to remain on the ilands.
The British Government even before war was declared on Germany in September 1939 sought to safeguard the civilain population, especially children, from aerial bombardment. The Government on August 31, 1939 ordered the evacuations to begin. Within a few weeks, 3 million Britains, mostly children had been evacuated from the cities. It was the most extensive movement of people in British history. Caos insued as the children were tagged liked parcels and shipped out of the cities. The abrupt separtaion of many very young children from their parents was a traumatic experience. The British concern was especially deep because of the Luftwaffe atracks on civilian populations. Even before the Blitz, the British watched in horror as the Luftwaffe in September launched terror attacks on Warsaw and other Polish citids. The vast majority of the children evacuated were sent to the English countryside, usually to live with individual families who volunteered to care for them. After the German victory in France (June 1940) and the Blitz on Brutain began (July 1940), the Government began to see Canada and other Commonwealth nations as safer havens, nor only from the aerial bombardment, but also from a possible German invasion. Some children were evacuated by ship to British Dominions, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa. The first child evacuees, or "guest children" were of the wealthy classes, sometimes entire schools were sent through private arrangements to family or friends in Canada. The British public eventually demanded the government pay so that less privileged children were also eligible. The War situation changed by early 1941. A German invasion was no longer though eminent and the Luftwaffe was forced to wind down its bombing campaign. Two ships carrying child evacuees were torpedoed. As a result, the Government in early 1941 ended further evacuation plans. This program has been the subject of both scholarly study as well as a wide range of liteary and theatrical treatment.
Te British weere not in a poition to offer much assistance to refugees, esprcially after the trimphant German Offensive (May-June 1940). The few refugeees that made it to Britain were cred for. But food was a major issue for Britain as it as not self-suffucnt in food prduction. And while the vaunted Luftwaffe failed to break Britain in the Nttle of Britain (1940), Adm Dönitz's U-boats attempted to cut off Bitain's North Atlantic life lines. There was no way Brtin could aid refugees on the Coninent. here was one areaa Britain could offer some aid--the Western Desert from their bases in Egypt. The Germans and Soviets as allies invaded Eastern Europe and the Balkans (1939-41). Refugees tried to escape the chaos and geocidal actions mneant thousands of refugees in motion. Some manafed to escape on boats across the Mediterranean. The only haven was the British position in Egypt and Paklestine. Those that made it were in desperate condition. British authoritiues attmpted to aid with limited resources on ad hoc basis. Britain seized Lebnon and Syria from Vichy Fance (1941). The Bitish then established the Middle East Relief and Refugee Administration (MERRA) which set up a series of camps in Egypt, Gaza, and Aleppo. American aid provided much of the neededresources. The MERRA camps provided havens for over 40,000 displaced Europeans. One very special vgroup was the Poles. After the NAZI invasion of the Soviet Union, Stalinm allowed Polish POWs he held tofight the Germans either with Siviet firces or the Allies. They made the way oveland out ofdreadful cmps to Egypt. Some civilians that the NKVD had depoted, including children mangfed to accompany them.
The Panzers were stopped by the English Channel. As a result there wre realtively few English Woeld war II rfugees other than the children and other evacuees from the cities. The British in the East Asia territories of the Empire were not so lucky. Small numbers of British subjects lived in the colonial possessions occupied by Japan. There were also British businessmen in China even after Japan invaded China (1937). In addition to businessmen, diplomats, and colonial officials, there wre also missionaries. Evacuating Britions was not a priority of the British Government. Commerce and the resulting income in the Far East was importannt to the cash starved British war time Government. British Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax implored Bitish businesses in 1940 to stay and insited that 'the time has not yet come to scupper our Far East interests'. [UK National Archives F0369/2675.] Finnaly the Foreign Office increasingly aware of Japanese intentiomns in 1941 began to plan to evacuate non-essential British civilians, especially the women and children. The plan was to evacuate them to Australia which seem the safest and cloest refuge. The effort was sidetracke by the Australian Government (October 1941). The Australian Government refused to accept anyone that was of mixed blood as it would violated the 'White Australia' policy. Money was also a problem. There were differences as to who would pay for the ship passages to Australia. And also who would support the women and children if a Japanese declaration of war would prevent husbands from sending money to support ther family. [UK National Archives F0369/2676 and F0369/26776.] As it became increasingly obvious that the Japanese were going to launch a war, many British fmilies who could afford to do so voluntarily evacuated. But many did not. The territories included Shanghai, Hong Kong, Malaya, Singapore, Borneeo, and Burma. The Japanese interned all the British and other citizens of the Allied powers. This was done immeditely after the conquest, except in Shanghai. They were held in concentration camps throughout Southeast Asia under deplorable condituoins. The men were separated from the women, including rather young boys, and used for slave labor. This involved hard labor eveb though denied adequate food. Anyonw who faltered in work assignments was brutalized. The internees were denied adequate food and medical supplies. The death rates were very high at these camps.
Britain is not normlly thought of as a country affected ny the Holocaust. The country had very restrictive immigration policies, but did provide sanctuary for thousands of European Jews including the Kindertransport children. It was the first country to successfully defy Hitler and the German military. There was a small part of Britain that was occupied by the NAZIs after the fall of France--the Channel Islands. Here there were a small number of foreign and British Jews. Most of the Channel Island Jews evacuted, but officials did not permit foreign Jews to leave for Britain. Soon after the German occuption the NAZI occupation officials issued the first anti-Jewish Order (October 1940). They instructed the police to idetify Jews as part of the registation process. Island authorities identified the Jews. Their registration cards were marked with red "J"s. Authorities also compiled lists of Jewish property which was turned over to German authorities. [Fraser] The process developed differently on the four islands, Jersey, Guernsey, Sark, and Alderney. Jersey Jews and 22 Jersey islanders died in concentration camps. Officials made some effort to mitigate anti-semitic measures the NAZIs demanded. They refused to require Jews to wear yellow stars. They did formally Aryanise businesses, but they were returned after the war. Even so, Jewish families had to struggled to survive after being deprived of their livelihoods. Police officials on Jersey and Guernsey did investigate Jewish ancestry for the Germans. Curfews were imposed on Jews. Shopping was limited to 3-4 pm. Two Jersey Jews committed suicide. One was admitted to an asylum where he subsequntly died. There were heros. Albert Bedane hid Mary Richardson, a Dutch Jewess who married a British sea captain, for 2 1/2 years. Guernsey police handed over three East European Jewish women to the NAZIS who deported then first to France where they were rounded up and transported to Auschwitz. The Duquemin fmily, including an 18-month-old baby girl, were deported but urvived. Alderney was the site of the only SS camp on British soil--the Norderney Camp. The camp was for the French Jews and other prisoners who worked on the island. The JHews were kept separated from the other prisoners. The islands were used by NAZI propaganda. Hitler ordered elaborate fortifications belt on the islnds to prevent British efforts to liberate the islands. The result was an ennormous effort to fortify the islands, efforts that made little military sence and would have been more useful as part of the Atantic Wall along the French coast. The NAZIs transported over 16,000 slave workers to the Channel Islands to build the fortifications. Among these workers were 1,000 French Jews. [Cohen] Many of these slave laborers died from exhaustion and malnutrition. Nicholas Winton is known as England's Schindler. He managed to save 669 children from the Nazis. Two Jews were killed by the British Navy when their ship was sunk attempting to enter Palestine (1939). the British interned 1,500 Jews destined for Palestine on Mauritius (1941-45). There were 124 who perished there.
Britain seized Palestine from the Ottoman at the end of World War I. The League of Nations apponted Britain as anandate power. One possible refuge for European Jews was Palestine. Anti-British and anti-Jewish riots had been organized by the Grand Mufti and supported by NAZIs (1938-39). With Europe lurching toward war, the British were concerned with improving relations with the Arabs. Many Arabs as well as the regime in Iran were in fact pro-NAZI. The British White Paper thus further limited Jewish immigration to Palestine (1939). Thus even after the Royal Navy gained control of the Mediterranran, Jewish refugees had trouble ebtering Palestine. The British began interning them on Cyprus. Even after the War, the British attempted to prevent Holocaust survivors from reaching Paslestine.
UK National Archives F0369/2675.
UK National Archives F0369/2676.
UK National Archives F0369/2677.
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