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Japanese schools: Historical trends -- 20th century First Showa era 1940s
Figure 1.--The Japanese contolled media reported nothing but great victories. A bright 10-year old armed with a map could tell that something was wrong. After 6 months of whirlwind cexpsnsion, the map of Japanese expansion ended cold June 1942. Not only was the Empire no longer expanding, but some positions were no longer mentioned. The military finally came clean when the Marianas fell (July 1944). The Americans were no only broke into the Empire's inter defense ring, but the Home Island were now within range of American bombers. And Saipan had an actual Japanese civilian population--the First Japanese civilians captured by the Japanese. These school children are assembled for military drill. Notice the head bands. Click on the image to see what the Army officer conducting the drill was telling the children.
Japanese Historical School Trends: The 20th Century--First Showa Era (1940-45)
Gen. Hidekki Tojo became prime-minister (1941). And he appointed military men to head the various ministries, completing military control of Japan. They expanded their reach over Japanese society. The military was already deeply inbedded in Japan's education system. Teaching in the school transitioned from ultra-nationalism to xenephobia. Throughout the War, reverence toward the emperor continued to be stressed in the schools. We see that dramatically in school text books. The Nation's History for Primary School in the first chaptern ('Country of Gods') instructs students “We have to study hard … to become good subjects, and to do our best for the sake of the Emperor.” [Ishikawa, p. 104.] The ethics textbook for second graders described Japan as 'Japan, the Good Country, the Beautiful Country. The only Country in the World, the Country of God'. [Tokutake, pp. 33-34.]
Even primary school children, includung the girls were taught combat skills. Tapping young people fior war work was not uncommon for war work. Preparing them gor combat was. This was dine to an extent by the Germans, but no wghere near the scake that the Japanese were preparing. Military training increased in the schools and began to involve younger and younger children. And as part of that training including the never surrender princiole. This had begun with the outbreak of the war. Japan's Little Soldiers were taught to believe that their Emperor was a Living God, and to die for the Emperor and the country was both an honor and a duty. There were differences from school to school, staffs competed to see who were the emoperor's most loyal subjects. For example, at the Ueda National School announced 'must-win education' (1944). The children had to memorize not only the 'Declaration of War', but also 'The Rescript on Imperial Soldiers'. Children not only were given military training but were iorganized to assist community organizations in war rekated projects. Schools emphasized the no surrender principle. They recited "Do not take the humiliation of being prisoners of war. You should rather die to avoid the humiliation of being prisoners of war…" This was part of the "Instruction on War" given to soldiuetrs. [Toda, pp. 163-168, 170-17).] Military training intensified after the Ameican seizure of the Marianas Islands which included Saipan that had a Japanese civilian popualtion (July 1944). Until this, the military had been hiding the awful truth--Japan was not only losing the War, but a new American heavy bomber, not the medium bombers tht hit Tokyo in 1942, was now within range of the Home Islands. And thus greater exortations were needed. And this including preparing the children to fight the Americans. Prime-Minister Tojo had to resign. But the military men who replaced him changed nothing, except to preapre plans to repel the now inevitable American invasion--and the children were to be preapred to fight it out. The boys in higher elementary schools were given 2 hours of compulsory military training a week (1944). But military training was now not limited to just the boys. All students in 3rd-6th grades (ages 8-13 years) were given 'special classes' for military training.
Ultimately after decades of creating an effective education systemn and steadily expnding it, Japan had to close their impresiuve creation--they had to close the schools. The older boys were drafted into the military. he older girls were and middle aged boys were sent into the factories to sustain war production. The youngrer children were sent nto the countryside with their teachers to escape the American bombing.
And as the Americans began preparing to invade, the Ketsugo Program intensified combat trainung. This of course came to an abrupt end with the Anerican victory in the Pacific War (August 1945). The Showa Era continued, but with dramtically different policies and major reforms, including school reforms.
Complete Military Control
Military men in the 1930s influenced civilian ministers. Ministers who ignored this were simply assasinated. This changed as the War apporosched with military nen taking civilian political posts. Gen. Hidekki Tojo became prime-minister (1941). And he appointed military men to head the various ministries, completing military control of Japan. They expanded their reach over Japanese society. The military was already deeply inbedded in Japan's education system. Teaching in the school transitioned from ultra-nationalism to xenephobia. Throughout the War, reverence toward the emperor continued to be stressed in the schools. We see that dramatically in school text books. The Nation's History for Primary School in the first chaptern ('Country of Gods') instructs students “We have to study hard … to become good subjects, and to do our best for the sake of the Emperor.” [Ishikawa, p. 104.] The ethics textbook for second graders described Japan as 'Japan, the Good Country, the Beautiful Country. The only Country in the World, the Country of God'. [Tokutake, pp. 33-34.]
Emperor Worship
Japan's Little Soldiers were taught to believe that their Emperor was a Living God, and to die for the Emperor and the country was both an honor and a duty. There were differences from school to school, staffs competed to see who were the emoperor's most loyal subjects. For example, at the Ueda National School announced 'must-win education' (1944). The children had to memorize not only the 'Declaration of War', but also 'The Rescript on Imperial Soldiers'.
Combat Training
Even primary school children, includung the girls were taught combat skills. Tapping young people was not uncommon for war work. Preparing them for combat was. This was done to an extent by the Germans, but no where near the scale that the Japanese were preparing. And the Germans did nit train girls for combat. Military training increased in the schools and began to involve younger and younger children. And as part of that training including the never surrender principle. This had begun with the outbreak of the war. Schools emphasized the no surrender principle. They recited "Do not take the humiliation of being prisoners of war. You should rather die to avoid the humiliation of being prisoners of war…" This was part of the "Instruction on War" given to soldiuetrs. [Toda, pp. 163-168, 170-17).] Military training intensified after the Ameican seizure of the Marianas Islands which included Saipan that had a Japanese civilian popualtion (July 1944). The civilians who committed suiside there were lauded as heros. Until this, the Japanese military had been hiding the awful truth--Japan was losing the Pacific War, although a perceptive 10-year vold with a map could have figured that out.
And now a new heavy Americam bomber (the B-29) was now withun range of the Home Islands. The Jpanese woukld call it the B-Son. The military knew what Allied bombers had done to Germany, the people did not yet know.
The military pnly resonse was greater exortations for thge people to support the war effort. And this including preparing the children to fight the Americans. Prime-Minister Tojo had to resign. But the military men who replaced him changed nothing, except to preapre plans to repel the now inevitable Anerican invasion--and the children were to be preapred to fight it out. The boys in higher elementary schools were given 2 hours of compulsory military training a week (1944). But military training was not limited to just the boys. All students in 3rd-6th grades (ages 8-13 years) were given 'special classes' for military training.
A hachimaki (鉢巻) is a Japanese headband worn over the forehead. During World War II it was usually made of a wide white cloth tied at the back. It featured a kanji slogan at the front. They were worn as a symbol of the warer's aspirations and courage by the wearer--inspirtional slogans. They were worn by soldiers and thus primsrily worn by men. But children doing school military training exercizes also wore them. This included the girls. The hachimaki worn by the children were blank. Apparently they the slogan was not to be added until it was time to go into combat. The origin is uncertain. The most likely speculation is that they were by samurai, worn underneath armor to stop cuts from their hard helmets and to make their helmets more comfortable. Japanese Kamikaze pilots wore hachimaki s they flew to their deaths. Modern hachimaki often have the Rising Sun symbol, but we do not see this in the World War II versions.
Community Service
Children not only were given military training but were organized to assist community organizations in war related projects. Much of this was done through the school-based Great Japan Youth Organizations.
Great Japan Youth Organization
Before the Pacific War, The Boy Scours wewre Japan's primcipal youth organization. We notice the Scouts making bamboo coin collectors to support the troops in China (1937). Japan was of course the aggresor. But in the controlled Japanese media, the Scouts like the Japanese people had no real way of knowing what was happening. We have been unable to find information about what happened with Scouting after Jaoan launched the Pacific War. We have found that Scoiuting sctivities ceased, but we do not know if the Government actually banned Scouting. Scoutting had a Western image and the Pacific War was about ending Western influences. Schools and communities cooperated to organize youth activities to support the war effirt. The chilren were taught to dedicate their lives to the Emperor and the war effort. As part of tghat effort the Great Japan Youth Organization (GYJO) was formed fir the boys. Boys beginning in the 3rd grade were enrolled on the new Great Japan Youth Organization (1941). For some reason secondary school students were exempted, probably so they could devote thenmselves to their studies. All employed youths belonged to the GJYO. It was operated by the Ministry of Education. And activities were organized through the phones. Apparently all other youth groups like the Scouts were absorbed in the GYJO.. It was theoiretically a massive organization. Obe source reoports thst there were nearly 55,000 organizayions. We are not entirely sure what that means. The membership on paper totally over 14 million children and youths. [Yamanaka, p. 304 and Toda, pp. 104-06.) The GJYO organized a range of activities. The children wrote letters and oprepared packages for the soldiers. They woirked together to cleaned shrines and temples as well as worshipping. They also colledcted money for war effort through organized school events.
The United States by 1944 had seized many islands from the Japanese Many like Tarawa were tough fights because the Japanese were dug in and refused to surrender. Even in hopless engagements the Japanese refuse to surrender. The Jaapnese casualties could be 10 times that of the Americans. The Americans, however, always won. This was largely because after Guadalcanal, American industrial power began to kick in and the Imperial Navy did not oppose the various American island invasions. The Marianas, especially Saipan, were different. This time the Imperial Navy finally opposed the American invasion. They wanbted to pull a Guadalcanal. Air bases on Saipan and Guam could support the carrier and surface naval assault. It was the first time in 2 years that the Imperial Fleet had sortied in force. The Result was the Battle of the Philippines Sea--the last important carrier battle. It proved a disaster for Japan, what Anericans refer to as the Great Msrianas Turkey Shoot. The Japanese contolled media had been reporting nothing but great victories. A bright 10-year old armed with a map could tell that something was wroing. The map of Japanese expansion ended June 1942. Not only was the Empire no longer expanding, but some positions were no longer mentioned. The military finally came clean when the Saipan was taken. The Americans not only broke into the Empire's inter defense ring, but the Home Island were now within range of American bombers. And Saipan had an actual Japanese civilian population--the First Japanese civilians captured by the Japanese. And not only did the soldiers fight to the death, but many of the civilians commited suicide.
The Japanese Militarists launched their milkiyary actions in China (1931) and then the Pacufic War, securein the confidence thatbthey could bomb enemy targets, but Japan itself was beyong he range of eneny bombers. Unbeknowns to the Japanese, the Unites States had begiun the effort to mobtain a long range bomber (1939). At the vtime it was foirseen that it would be used in Europe. Until the fall of the Marianas. the Military Government kept the truth of the turn in the War from the Japanese peoople. Losing carriers or a small island was fairly easy to cover up by the vcontrolled press. We are not sure, however, how many Japanese civilians notice that the seizure of new territory was no longer being reported--in fact had stopped cold since the Battle of Miday (June 1942). This had been reported as a great victory. This changed with the fall of the Mariana Islands (July 1944). The looming disaster could no longer be covered up. The reality of the situation began to be reported, especially the possibility that Japan could be bombed. By this time, the Allied bombing camapaign in Europe was well known, although the real damage was yet to be done. We are not sure to what extent the Militarists understood what was to become. They knew about the B-29 Superforts. We are not sure just how and when they learned, but it was known to them at least by early 1944. It iks likely that they did not fully understand the damage that could be done,k but they knew that the bombing was being planned. The Japanese had been boming China since 1931`and it had not had a major impact. And Japan no inly had air defenses, but the distances involved and the nature of the atmospheric conditions over the Home Islands were favorable for Japan. Teachers in the schools began addressing thge fact that Japan could be bombed. in their classrooms.
Japan's cities were some of the most vulnerable in the world. There may be a modern downtown of solid stone and contcrete structures, but they were surrounded by extensive resdential areas of wood and paper houses. This is how Japanese cities were predominanely built--essentially vast piles of kindling. And not only were Japanese homes and cities highly flanable, but they were packed closely together. Some of the most densely populated urban areas in the world. Not only was the great bulk of the Japanese population located in these cities, but the country's war industries were also packed into these cities. No other World War II beligerant country was as vulnerable as Japan. Yet the Japanese militarists were intent on war. Japan had begun bombing Chinese cities even before invading the coutry (1937). And subsequently Japan attacked the United States which at the time did not have bombers which could attck Japan. The Japanese war lords were sure that the Pacific Ocean protected the country from bomber attack. After 2 1/2 years of fighing, however, the United States had both a long-range heavy bomber (the cB-29 Superfortress) and bases now within range of Japan. The cJapanese would come to call the B-29 the B-Son. After seizing the Marianas (June-July 1944), the Americans began building a vast complex of air bases. Supplies began arriving in huge quantities and eventually the B-29 squadrons. The inital conventional B-29 raids were not very effective (fall 1944). This change with the arrival of Gen. Curtlis LeMay and the development of new tactics (January 1945). Than the deadly effective raids began. Day after day and also at night, waves of B-29s hammered Japan's ports and industrial cities. Incinderaries set the wood and paper houses ablaze. And the bomber force steadily grew as the B-29s rolled offthe assembly lines (March 1945). The American bombers flying from the Mrianas began massive, almost daily raids, against Japan's industrial cities. Germany's cities were left mounds of rubble. Japan's cities would be left piles of glowing timbers and ashes,
The Emperor and the Japanese military were determined to resist. Emperor Hirohito approced the strategy of Ketsugo (January 1945). This was part of the overall strategy of bleeding the Americans to force a negotiated peace. Ketsugo meant self defense, As a national defense policy it meant preparing civilans to fight an American invasion. It was a refinement of Japan's Shosango victory plan which envisioned defending the home islands to the last man. The plan was to prepare the Japanese people psychologically to fight the Americans and die defending their homeland. There was to be no surrender, even civilians were not to surrender. Some Japanese sources claim that Japan was defeated and ready to surrender. Such claims are starkly disproved by what happened to civilians on Okinawa. The military there actively prevented civilians from surrendering and incouraged civilians to kill themselves. Ketsugo went a step further. It involved training civilians to actively resist an American invasion. The plan included training children, boys as well as girls, to fight with improvised weapons. The military began implementing the strategy of Ketsugo (April 1945). Soldiers were assigned to schools to train even primary-level children in the use of weapons like bamboo spears. .
Innocent Victims
Critics of the strategic bombing campaign insist that the bombing of 'innocent civilians' was a war crime. Now when duscussung this issue about the Geramns, it is an open question how innocent German civilians were. Many, an unnowable number, Germans knew very well what was happening, although unlikely the full dimensions. Japanese civilians were different. Few knew about waht the Imperial Japanese Army was doing in China and other occupied territories. And soldiers who returned home did not, as far as we can tell, tell their mothers, wives, and childremn how they raped and murddrred in Nanking and other Chinese towns and villages. (After the Pacifuc War began, few deployed soldiers came home.) We think a better case can be made for innnocent Japanese civilans. And after the Americans began the strategic bombing campaign they eventually ended all pretense of precission bombing of war industries. The Americans under Gen. Curtis LeMay began the fire bombing of Japanese cities. LeMay admitted that if the United States lost the War that he would be tried as a war criminal. But the issue is far more compolicated. Before the strategic boming of Japan is condened as a war crime, a whole series of issues have to be addressed. 1) Japan launched the War. 2) Jappan began bombing Chinese cities (1931) and continued doing so for 10 years BEFORE Pearl Harbor. 3) Japanese boming camapigns hit cities as the major targets. There were only limited Chinese war industries. 4) Japanese soldiers killed some 20 million Asians during the War, most but hardly inly Chibese. Most of the peopole they killed were innocent civilans. That killing did not end until Japan surrendered. 5) While Japanese civilians were largely innocent, they were working for an evil Militarist regime and producing the arms used to kill millions of innocent civilans and Allies soldiers. 6) Invading the Home Islands was esimated to result in 0.5-1.0 million American casualties. 7) Japan was training civilians for combat. 8) Based on operations on Saipan and Okinawa, Japanese soldiers were forcing non-combatants to commit suicide. Those that wavered in mmny cases mirdered. 8) What alternative strategy could have ended the War with fewer Japanese casulaties. The moral condumdrums here are endless.
Sources
Aramaki, Sōhei. 2000. “Kyōiku Kikai no Kakusa wa Shukushō Shitaka: Kyōikukankyō no Henka to Shusshin Kaisōkan Kakusa” in Hiroyuki Kondō, ed. Sengo Nihon no Kyōiku Shakai (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 2000), pp. 15-35.
Ishikida, Miki Y. Japanese Education in the 21st Century (Universe: June 2005).
Harada, Taneo and Masato Tokuyama. Eds. Shogakkō ni Miru Senzen Sengo no Kyōkasho Hikaku (Tokyo: Gyōsei, 1988).
Okado, Masakatsu. Minshū no Kyōiku Keiken (Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 2000).
Takano, Yoshihiro. Seinen Gakkōshi (Tokyo: Sanichi Shobō: 1992).
