Figure 1.--The pasenger liner "SS Athenia" was the first major casualty of the Battle of the Atlantic. She was launched in Glasgow, Scotland (1923) and worked runs between the United Kingdom and Canada. Cpt. Fritz-Julius Lemp cammpnding German U-boat U-30, violating Hitler's orders, sank her in the Western Approaches (September 3, 1939). Britain did not declare war until September 3 and it took time to oganize convoys. Fast passanger liners were some of the few ships that did not need convoys. They were faster than the U-boats and thus difficult to sink. Of the 1,418 aboard, 98 passengers and 19 crew members were killed. The boy was here was one of the syrvivirs. [Lemp commading U-110 was not punished and had a successful career until killed in an action (May 1941). His U-boat was catured and the British recoverd an Enigma machine and code books, a major coup to assist Blechky Park.

Thousands of ships participated in the Battle of the Atlantic during World War II. Some of these ships and the men who served on them became legends. The U-9 at the beginning of the War slipped into the British ancorage at Scappa Flow and sank a British battle ship (September 1939). An early naval battle was fought off Argentina in the South Atlantic. Three British cruisers engaged the German pocket battleship Graff Spee involved in commerce raiding. As a result, the German ship was forced into the neutral port of Montevideo, Uruguay where the captain blew his ship up (1939). Perhaps the best known ship in the Royal Navy was HMS Hood, a battle cruiser. Thus new that she was sunk by Bismarck was especially shocking (March 1941) and lead to a massive effort to sink Bismarck. The carrier USS Wasp would help to get a tanker through to Malta, preventing a British surrender. The fast tanker SS Ohio was destroyed by relentless Luftwaffe attacks, but made it through lashed to destroyers, its decks awash becoming the most famous tanker of the War. The USS Nevada, sunk at Pearl Harbor by the Japanese, was the fleet command post for the D-Day invasion (June 1944), but the small Ameeica destroyer USS Frankford and other American destroyers played a key role on Omaha Beach. The U-boat fleet was devestated by the Allies, but two U-boats became famous at the end of the War. The U-234 surrenderd to the U.S. Navy with a cargo of enriched uranium intended for the Japanese atomic bomb program. The U-977 managed a notable escape to Argentina. The Japanese were not involved in the Battle of the Atlantic, but they did participate in efforts to exchange material and technology with the Germans. The Japanese submarine I-52 tried to get to France to pick up enriched uranium.

American Ships

The United Statesc fought two ocean war. Thev major fketactions were in thev Pacific. As a result, the most fabeled American ships of World War II emerged in the Pacufic, none more fabeled than the carrier USS Enterprise. It was among the three carriers surviving the Japanese Pearl Harbor attack. Enterprie was then used for hit-and run attacks before participating in the Doolittle raid on Tokyo and then a critical role at Midway (June 1942). The Japanese reported Entrprise sunk on several occassions. It next played a critical role in the Solomons campaign before the new Essex-class carrier had begun to reach the fleet. The United States conducted ectensive naval operations in the Atlantic, but they were mostly anti-submarine operationss by relatively small ships that did not achieve the fame of the Big Blue Fleet in the Pacific. There were some notable ships in the Atlantic. The first were destroyers damaged or sunk as a result of President Roosevelt's secret orders to launch an undeclared naval war in the Atantic. Ameican freighters were being sunk, but then destroyers began to be damaged and sunk, vessels like USS Greer (September 1941), USS Kearny (October 15), and Ruben James (October 31). President Rooseveklt probably thought that these actions would arouse the American people as they did in World War I. Most Amerians continued to oppose direct participation in the War. It would finally only be the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in the Pacific which would arouse Americans (December 1941). A major development did not involve the heroic action of individual Navy combat ships, but the mass production of merchant ships--the famed Liberty ships. President Roosevelt called them 'ugly ducklings', but they enabled the titanic production of American war material to reach American and other Allied fighting men all over the world. There were so many that the Navy began running out of names for them. One survices today as the SS Jeremiah O'Brien--a museum ship. Some other notable actions included the carrier USS Wasp would help to get a tanker through to Malta, preventing a British surrender. The fast tanker SS Ohio was destroyed by reletnless Luftwaffe attacks, but somehow made it through lashed to destroyers with its and deck awash becoming the most famous tanker of the War (August 1942). Its precious cargo saved Malta. The battleship USS Nevada, sunk at Pearl Harbor by the Japanese, was the fleet command post for the D-Day invasion (June 1944), but it was small American destroyer USS Frankford and other American destroyers that played a key role on Omaha Beach providing badky needed artillery support. And at another mass produced ship type--the Landing Ship Tank (LST) and other more specialized amphibious vessels were a key component of the Allied success in the many needed ammpibious invsaions in both Europe and the Pacific.

British Ships

The pasenger liner SS Athenia was the first major casualty of the Battle of the Atlantic. She was launched in Glasgow, Scotland (1923) and worked runs between the United Kingdom and Canada. Cpt. Fritz-Julius Lemp commanding German U-boat U-30, violating Hitler's orders, sank her in the Western Approaches (September 3, 1939). Britain did not declare war until September 3 and it took time to oganize convoys. Fast passanger liners were some of the few ships that did not need convoys. They were faster than the U-boats and thus difficult to sink if operating under war-time caution. Surface engagemernts in the early years of the War primarily focused on the battleships. The first major naval egagement of the war was the hunt for a German pocket battleship. A British cruiser squadeon (HMS Ajax, HMNZS Achilles, and HMS Exeter) intercepted the German pocket battleship Graf Spee, the first German ship to be equipped with radar, off Montivedeo (December 1939). The cruisers, espeially the heavy crusier Ajax were heavily damaged. Graf Spee was also hit, but not as severely. She was forced into Montivedeo for repairs where her captain scuttled her (December 1939). This is why commerce raiders were ordered not to engage enemmy naval patrols. They cukd be lost tio even minor damage without a friendly port available. Despite the British naval suprority, the Germans suceeded in invading and seizing Norway, largely because the Norwegians (like the Danesm Swedes, Belgians and Dutch) insisted on neutrality. Early in the War, the Germans were determined to use surface vssels and not just U-boats to sever British sea lanes. They had some limited succss. The Germans decided to send their new battleship, Bismarck, out into the Atlantic for its first mision. Alerted by the Swedes, the radar equipped cruisers HMS Norfolk and HMS Suffolk spotted Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prince Eugen in the Denmark Straits north of Iceland. This led to the Batte of the Demark Straits (May 1941). Perhaps the best known ship in the Royal Navy at the time of World War II was HMS Hood--the cock of the feet. Hood was a powerful, but poorly armored battle cruiser. Hood and HMS Prince of Wales interceped. In a feroucuius gun battl, Hood was sunk and Ptinmce of Wales damaged. This was possibly the greatest shock to the Royal Navy during the entire War. Virtually the entire British AStlabtic fleet was mobilized to sink the Bismarck. Bismarck was also damaged in the Denmark Straits and and later by a carrier strike from Ark Royal. This enabled HMS King George V, HMS Rodney, and other British ships to turn her into a burning wreck. What could have been a tough fight turned into turkey shoot because Bismarck's steering was jammed by the carrier strike. A few months later, arguably the most impotant military alliance in history was consumated under the big guns of the HMS Prince of Wales where Prime-Minister Churchill and President Roosevlt met to sign the Atlantic Charter (August 1941). Prince of Wales still bore signs of the battering Bismarck had given her. Without the Royal Navy Taranto carrier strike, the Italian frogman attack disabling Royal Navy battleships HMS Queen Elizabeth and to a lesser extrent HMS Valiant could have been disasterous (December 1941). After the sinking of Bismarck and the Channel Dash (February 1943), Hitler had lost his interest in battleships. Some of the big guns were incorporated into the Atlantic Wall. Tirpitz spent most of its time hiding in Norwegian Fjords. Sinking her became a task assigned to the RAF. Sharnhost was sunk in the Battle of the North Cape by a Royal Navy crusier squadron (December 1943). Royal Navy battleships were not fast enough to catch Sharnhost. The cruisers were used to bring her to bay so she could be dispatched by the battleships. In this case crusers and destroyers would do the job. One of the most notable English ships in the later years of the War was Cmdr. Johnny Walker's U-boat hunter HMS Starling. Royal Navl bsttleships in the lat 3 yeatrs of the War were primatly used for shore bombardment, both in Europe and then the Pacific as ships began to be transfered to fight the Japanese.

Canadian Ships

Canada entered the War with virtually no navy or shipyards needed to build ships. By the ebd of the War, Canada had one of the world's largest navies, at least in terms of the nimber of ships. The Bandians set out building corvettes in large numbers. A corvette was a small ships which could perform escort duties for the Atlantic convoys to Britain. A large shipyard was not needed to build a corvette. Small yards were soon created to build corvettes. The corvette was a small open bridge ship, not ideal for operating in the blustey North Atlantic. But the Flower Corvettes build by the Canadans played a huge role in protecting thge cionvoys.

French Ships

France had gthe world's fourth largest navy. Had France not collpased (June 1941), it would have oplayed an imprtant role in the War. The French Navy played a minor role in the Battle of the Atlantic. It was primarily deployed in the Mediterranean to back up the Royal Navy in case Italy entered the War. Of cvourse the Fallmof France meant (June 1940) meant that the Royal Navy had to fight it out with the Italain Navy in the Mediterraneann by itself. Some French ships joined the Free French. But the French admirals remained loyal to Vichy leading to the disaster at Mers el Kebir (July 1940). France operated a converted battleship, the Béarne, and was building two carriers, Joffre and Painléve, when Hitler and Stalin launched the War. They were never completed and France capitualted before any her navy could expand furthrr or play any important role in the War. This was only possible if the Germans got hold of the French fleet--explaining Mers el Kebir. The Béarne loaded with American planes was diverted to Martinique. It was ghe subject of considerable diplomatic wrangling, mostlt with the United States (1940-43). There were small actions during the Allied Torch lansinfs (November 1942). In response the Germans tried to seize he French vesseks in Toulon, but the French true to their word scuttle their vessels. Martuniue finally went iover to the Free French (June 1943). There were Allied efforts to use Béarne, but by 1943 the United Stratesc was producingb modern carriets in large numbers and Béarne was no longer of great value. Even efforts to use her as an aircraft ferry failed.

German Ships

The Germany Navy was even less prepared fior Workd War II than it had been for Workld War I. Kriegsmarine had only a fraction of the Royal Navy force and would also have to face the American and Canadian Navy. To make matters worse, a substabtial portion of what they had was lost in the Norewegian campaign. Both Hitlr and the German admirals prioritized heavy capital ships. Gradually they began to realize the importance of the U-bosts. The U-47 at the beginning of the War slipped into the British ancorage at Scappa Flow and sank a British battle ship (September 1939). An early naval battle was fought off Uruguay in the South Atlantic. Three British cruisers engaged the German pocket battleship Graff Spee involved in commerce raiding. Commerce raiders had orders not to engage Royal Baby ships. This was because even minor damagevwith out friendly ports could duiable the ship, This is precuiselywhat hapened to Graf Spee and Bismarck would meet the same fate. As a result, the German ship was forced into the neutral port of Montevideo, Uruguay where the captain blew his ship up (1939). The invasion and occupation of Norway was a major German victory, but the Kriegmarine paid a heavy orice. Four cruisers (Blücher, Bergen, Karlsruhe and Königsberg were lost as well as 10 destroyers. Lützow was heabvily damaged. This would affect German naval capabilities as the Germans began to plan Operation Sealion, the invasion of Britain (summer 1940). Perhaps the best known ship in the Royal Navy was HMS Hood, a battle cruiser. Thus new that she was sunk by Bismarck was especially shocking (March 1941) and lead to a massive effort to sink Bismarck. The U-boat fleet was devestated by the Allies, but two U-boats became famous at the end of the War. The U-234 surrenderd to the U.S. Navy with a cargo of enriched uranium intended for the Japanese atomic bomb program. The U-977 managed a notable escape to Argentina. The Japanese were not involved in the Battle of the Atlantic, but they did participate in efforts to exchange material and technology with the Germans.

Bismarck

Perhaps the best known ship in the Royal Navy was HMS Hood, a battle cruiser. Thus new that she was sunk by Bismarck was especially shocking (March 1941) and lead to a massive effort to sink Bismarck. The Germany Navy when war broke out in 1939 had no way of matching the Royal Navy. Only limited effort was made to build a U-boat fleet. Rather resources were given to build large, superbly engineered ships. And nothing symbolized this more than the Bismarck, the largest and finest battleship built until that time. The High Command conceived of a commerce raiding operation to support U-boat operations. Hitler had misgivings about the operation when informed. Admiral Lütjens sailed Bismarck from Gdynia with the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen (May 18). The High Command positions two supply ships and five tankers in the Atlantic to support the operation. Scouting ships were dispatched to locate targets. Bismarck sank HMS Hood, a battle cruiser, and heavily damaged the new HMS Prince of Wales. Only three men survive Hood. The fleet received the terse message "Hood sunk." The Admiralty ordered all available battle groups to converge on Bismarck which because of damge engagement made for Breast on the French coast (May 24). Bismarck manages to eluded the pursuing ships. An American Catalina flying-boat located Bismarck. Force-H coming north from Gibraltar with the carrier Ark Royal launched Fairey Swordfish (May 26). The first wave mistakingly attack HMS Sheffield A second strike achieve two hits on Bismarck, one of which affects the steering. The next day the converging Royal Navy surface fleet destroyed Bismarck (May 27).

Graf Spee

It was not often in World War II that the British found themselves outgunned in the Atlantic. This occurred early in the War in the South Atlantic. The KMS Admiral Graf Spee (16,000 tons) at the outbreak of World War II was the pride of the German Navy. It was a pocket (meaning small battleship/heavy cruiser). The invasion of Poland (September 1) was no surprise to German commanders. The German Admiralty (OKM) could have ordered the ship home, but apprently OKM accepted Hitler's assessment that Britain would not declare war. When Britin did declare war (September 3), OKM had little choice but to order Graf Spee, which was at sea and would have had a difficult time returning to a German port, to conduct commerce raiding in the South Atlantic. It proved to be a 77 day cruise during which it achieved considerble success, sinking nine merchant ships (Clement, Newton Beach, Ashlea, Huntsman, Trevanion, Africa Shell, Doric Star, Tairoa, and Streonshalh) totalling over 50,000 tons. The Royal Navy as a result, launched a major search for Graf Spee. Part of this effort was Force G, the South American Cruiser Squadron commanded by Commodore Henry Harwood. Captain Hans Langsdorff managed to skillfully to use the vastness of the Indian and South Atlantic Ocean to good effect. Harwood reasoned that Langsdorff might attempt to attack merchant shipping off the River Plate where merrchant shipping from Buenos Aires and Montivedeo could be found. Harwood was correct. He found Graf Spee off Uruguay where the Battle of the River Plate erupted (December 13). The British havy cruiser Exeter accompanied by the light cruiser Ajax and Achilles (with a New Zealand crew) engaged Graf Spee upon sight. The British cruisers were badly outgunned by the larger German vessel's 11 inch guns, but in the best traditions of the Royal Navy attacked. Graf Spee's 11 incvh guns allowed it to engage the smaller British cruisers at a distance beyond the range of the British 8 and 6 inch guns. These guns, especially, the 6 inch guns could not have penetrasted Graf Spee's armor and sink her, but not all of the German ship was protected by its armor belt and these lighter guns could do serious danage to important parts of the ship. Graf Spee was no Bismarck. Adm. Lanngsdorf's thinking appears to have foucussed primarily on his superior 11 inch guns. And he at first thougt the British ships were destoyers. Actually he violated his orders which were not to engage even an inferior force. This was fundamentally sound given that even limited damage from a lighter vessel was as good as a kill, because a damaged Grad Spee could not have made it home. And remember that France was still in the war at the time, meaning Germany had no Atlantic ports. This of course it just what hppened. The British managed to reduce the German advantage by their battle formation and maneuver, attcking from two directions. Graf Spee concentrated on Exeter to devestating effect, but this alloweed Ajax and Achilles to close the range. As the battle ensued, the British cruisers were severly damaged, but managed to score hits on Graf Spee. During the furious sea battle 72 British sailors were killed and 36 Germns. Exeter was severely damaged, but somehow kept firing until Graf Spee cut off the engagment. Exeter which was reduced to a smoldering wreck had to retire and made for the Falklands where emergency repairs nd medical care were possible. Graf Spee took refuge in Montevideo early in the morning (December 14). This is often seen as a serious mistake. The Uruguyans were more favoravly disposed toward the British than the Argentines. Even more importantly, the German vessel was not damaged strucurally and might have disappeared into the vast Atlantic, although the damage probably would have prevented it from getting home. There was no structural damage, but important systems were damaged like the fresh water system. Her main armour was pierced and she sustained serious internal damage to communication systems, and most of her magazines were cut off. Going into Montevideo gave the Royal Navy time to concentrate a much stronger force, but this would take several days. The only British vessel to reach the two damaged cruisers immediately was the heavy cruiser Cumberland which had steemed full speed from the Falklands. Cumberland arrived a few hours after Graf Spee broke off the engagement. It was also outclassed by Graf Spee, but undamgeded. Uruguay was a neutral nation and despite demands from the German Government granted Cpt. Langsdorff only a 3 day stay as required by international law. The British managed to convince the Germans that a substantial naval force had assembled off Uruguay when actually all that was there were the damaged Ajax and Achilles and the undamaged Cumberland which had arrived shortly after the fighting. Langsdorff decided to scuttled his vessel (December 17). We are not sure who gave this order. Some reports suggest that Hitler didn't want the German Navy humiliated by a naval defeat. This is incorrect. Langdorff finally decided on his own, probably becuse the fighting capability of his ship was affected by the damage received.

U-47

The U-47 commanded by Kapitänleutnant Günther Prien at the beginning of the War in a considerable feat of seamanship slipped into the British ancorage at Scapp Flow and sank the obslesent British battle ship HMS Royal Oak (October 1939). It was the first major Royal Navy vessel lost in the War. Penertrating the major British fleet anacorage was a major propaganda coup for the Germans which Gebbels propaganda machine exploited to the full. Prien and U-boat men in generral were catapulted into war hero status. Prien would become one of the most sucessful U-boat capatains of the War before being killed (March 1941). Alao shocking to the British people was the loss of 835 men and boys when Royal Oak capcized and sank.

U-234

The mission of the U-234 continues to be one of the unresolved mysteries of Worlsd War II. The U-234 was a very large mine-laying U-boat--the XB type mine layer. Because of its size it was converted as a Japan transporter, thus becoming an undersea freighter to carry a much larger cargo than a standard U-boat. Even so it held only a fraction of the cargo of a surface merchant vessel. The U-234 was dispacted to Japan with a cargo of German high-tech equipment. The U-234 departed Kiel headed for Kristiansand, Norway (March 25, 1945). The ship departed Norway for Japan (April 16, 1945). The cargo included drawings, a Me-262 jet fighter in crates, air defense radars and jet engine equipment as well as two German experts on various weapons technologies and two Japanese officers. What made the U-234 especially interesting was 80 gold-lined lead cylinders containing 560 kilograms of uranium oxide marked "For the Japanese Army". There is very limited cargo space even aboard this cargo U-boat. Thus only items of the highest priority would have been loaded. Cpt. Fehler received cease-fire orders (May 4). He decided to surrender to the Americans. The Captain claimed to know nothing about the uranium. The only pupose for the uranium oxide given the state of Japanese nuclear research would have been a dirty bomb. Also aboard were two Japanese officer--Air Force Colonel Genzo Shosi, an aeronautical engineer, and Navy Captain Hideo Tomonaga, a submarine architect. The U-234 was informed of Hitler's suicide (May 1). Naval Highcommand ordered all German submarines to observe a ceasefire (May 4). The order to surrender was then given (May 8). The captain of the U-234 at this time arrested the Japanese officers who subsequently attempted suiside with sleeping pills. The German officers then discussed if they should surrender or proceed to Japan. They decide to surrender and to kill the Japanese who had botched their suiside attempt. This meant that they could not talk to the Americans about the purpose of the uranium oxide. Their bodies were discaded at sea. The captain then contacted naval authjorities in Halifax to arrange a surrender. Finally he decided to surrender to the Americans. The USS Sumter escorted the U-234 to Portsmouth. The U-234 was interned at Portsmouth (May 19). There the Americans learned for the first time that radio-active uranium oxide was aboard. What the Americans did not know was if other U-boats had gotten through to Japan with uranium an nuclear technology. This may have influenced the subsequent American decession to use the bomb on Japan. The nature of the uranium and disposition by the U.S. Navy is shrouded in mystery. Using lead contianers with gold lining was needed because uranium is highly corrisive. This and the lead cannisters susts it was a very high grade enriched uranium. 【Hydrick, p.7.】 The level of enrichment refers to the percentagecof the U-235 isotope. As far as we know, the Government has never released the level of enrichment which would provide an insight into the German atomic program. It is generally accepted that the Los Alamos team was having trouble obtaining the amount of uranium needed for a bomb. 【Goldberg】 Some authors believe that the uranium on U-234 was a godsend for the American Manhattan Project and used by the Americans for the bombs used on Japan. Lt. Col. John Lansdale Jr. who worked with the Manhattan Project as a security officer and was responsible for tracking uranium confirms that the German uranium was used to build the bombs dropped on Japan. [Broad] Some authors also wonder about the 'infrared proximity fuse' and wether it was actually a fuse connected with the atomic program. Many of these quetions are still unanswered. But the fact that the Germans had enriched uranium strongly suggests that they had made more progress in building a bomb than is recognized by most authors. And it also raises questions about the Japanese atomic bomb program and the extent of cooperation between the Axis allies.

U-864

The U-864 a Type IX U-boat which was was used as a Japan transport. Type IX was a large U-boat used for long range operations, but not as maneurable as the smaller Type VII which was the primary type used for combat operations by the Kriegsmarine. Magic intercepts revealed that she had a mission of transporting military equipment to Japan. The Germans report that she carried 67 tons of metallic mercury in 1,857 32 kg steel flasks stored in her keel. The Japanese had purchased the mercury from Axis ally Italy before that country surrendered to the Allies. The U-864 also carried parts and engineering drawings for the German jet fighter and other military supplies. Among her passengers were Messerschmitt engineers Rolf von Chlingensperg and Riclef Schomerus, Japanese torpedo expert Tadao Yamoto, and Japanese fuel expert Toshio Nakai. Japanese Col. Kawashima claims a U-boat with 2 tons of uranium oxide was sunk. [Kawashima] Kawashima did not specify the U-boat or where it was sunk, but he was probably referring to the U-864. [Chen] The U-864 departed Kiel (December 5, 1944). The voyage was, however, delayed by first an accident and then a British air raid on the Bergen U-boat pens where the ship was being repaired raid (January 12, 1945). While undergoing trials it was engaged by the British submarine HMS Venture and sunk in Norwegian coastal waters (February 9). This was the only intentional submerged sinking of a submarine by another submarine during the War. The remains of the U-864 are known, but there is no confirmation that uranium was aboard. The wreck was found (2003), but has not yet been carefully investigated. by the Norwegian Coastal Authority (NCA). We know that it was carrying mercury because a cannister with mercury has been retrieved from the wreck. While uranium is suspected, it has not yet been proved.

U-977

The U-977 was a World War II German Type VIIC U-boat launched (1943). Oberleutnant Heinz Schäffer (1921-1979) commanded her ffirst war patrol (May 2). The U-977 sailed from Kristiansand, Norway. His orders were to enter the British port of Southampton and sink Allied shipping. This was a war patrol, it had nothing to do with assisting war criminals espace the Allied vice. At this stage of the War given Allied ASW capabilities, it was a suicide mission. While the U-boats had been largely defeated and with drawn from the Atlntic (1943), Admiral Dönitz still dispatched some boats to force the Allies to commit resources to the ASW effort. Admiral Dönitz ordered a cease fire in preparation for the coming surrender (May 5, 1945). The U-977 was headed for Southhampton and located north of Scotland. Rather than return to Germany as ordered, Oberleutnant Schäffer decided on his own to sail to Argentina. This was dangerous decesion because the Allies were increasungly able to find and track u-boats. It is not entirely clear why he made this decsion. When the Americans finally wre able to interogate him, he said that he was by Propaganda Minister Goebbels who charged as part of the American Morgenthau Plan, Germany would be turned into into a "goat pasture” and that men were to be "enslaved and sterilized". There is no way to tell if he was being honest, but it seems likely. We do not know how much he knew about NAZI war crimes. He was, however, a verybuoung man (about 24 years old) and my well have belieced NAZI claims. He may have been aware of delays in being repatriated German POWs after World War I. He was probably aware of conditions in Germany after World war I. And prospects in Argentina with its substabtial German community probably did seem more attractive than a defeated and occupied Germany. Married men with families were allowed to disembark. The ensuing 66-day voyage is a matter of some controversy. The Americans who wre tracking the boat and Oberleutnant Schäffer provide varying accounts. One subject at issue is to what extent Schäffer remained submerged. The voyage is often cited by authors writing about escaping war criminals and NAZI gold. There is eve a claim of a secret voyage to Antartica.

Italian Ships

Italy had a fast, modern navy, it could have affected control of the Mediterranean after France capitualed, taking the French fleet out of the war (June 1940). Fortunately for the British, the Italians had no aircraft carriers nor radar. The most notable Italian vessels were the three balleships disabled by the Royal Navy carrier strike on Taranto (November 1940). They were Conte di Cavour, Duilo, and Littorio. The Battle of Taranto was the first all-aircraft ship-to-ship naval attack in history, employing 21 'obsolete' Fairey Swordfish biplane torpedo bombers from HMS Illustriou. Admiral Cunningham, the mastermind of the attack, was to say in the aftermath, "Taranto, and the night of 11–12 November 1940, should be remembered forever as having shown once and for all that in the Fleet Air Arm the Navy has its most devastating weapon." 【Simpson, p. 741.】 Even so, the gun clubs in the major navies continued to see battleships as the main capital ships. America moved its battleships to Pearl Harbor. Britain sent HMS Prince of Wales and Repulse to fight the Japanese without air cover. The Germans made only a half-hearted effort to build a carrier--the Graf Zeppelin. The Japanese poured enormos resources into building two super-battleshipos Musachi and Yamato. The Battle of Taranto not only affected the naval balance in the Mediterrranean, but generated serious thinking among Japanaese admirals who had a much more powerful carrier strike force than the British -- Kido Butai.

Japanese Ships

The Japanese deployed six fleet cariers at the onset of the Pacific War--the famed Kido Butai. The Akagi, Hiryū, Kaga, and Sōryū had some of the most skilled aviators of the War and beginning with Pearl Harbor (December 1941) cut a blazing parg across the Pacific for 6 month as the Japanese carved out their coveted Southern Resource Zone. Shokaku and Zuikaku had less well-trained aviators, but still highly competent one. They played important roles in the South Pacific fighting around the Solomons. The Japanese battleshipswhich were to fight a climatic naval battle played only minor roles in the War. This included the two greatest battkeships ever built -- Mushashi and its sistership Yamato. The Japanese submarine I-52 tried to get to France to pick up enriched uranium.

Sources

Goldberg.

Hydrick, Carter P. Critical Mass: The Real Story of the Atomic Bomb and the Birth of the Nuclear Age.

Simpson, Michael (2004). A Life of Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham: A Twentieth-century Naval Leader (Routledge Ed.: 2004).

Created: 6:59 PM 4/16/2011
Last updated: 7:53 AM 5/14/2024