Figure 1.--

The early-19th century was dominated by the Napoleonic Wars. After the Congress of Vienna, conservative forces were able to reestablish control in Europe. Less noticed at the time was how capitalism and the democratic forces were buttressed by the rise of America. Britain with the powerful Royal Navy prevented these forces from reestablish control of the Western Hemisphere. Britain also initiasted a campaign to end the slave trade, employing the powerful Royal Navy. The Revolutions of 1848 threatened the dominance of the European monasrchies. The Crimean War soon after weakened the hetherto amnity of the great powers. While the Europeans squabeled over relatively minor priovinces and territories, Russia expanded unopposed into Asia and America reached the Pacific and dominated North America establish the base for the two superpowes of the 20th century. The American Civil War ended slavery in America. It also determined that the only democratic republic at the time United States would not only remain united, but demonstrated the ernormous power that a democracy could generate. The unification of Germany and Italy dramatically changed the European power balance. The Industrial Revolution, especiaslly the railroad, remade Europe in the 19th century. And industrial development provided Europe the Europeans means of projecting power to every corner of the globe. The Scramble for Africa carved up the last areas of the world not under European control. Huge technological advances occurred in the 19th century, especially the second half of the century. Sociaslism challenged the foundations of captalism and acquired many devotees. Coservative forces in China resisted modernization as the European powers carved out zones of interest. The Menjii Restoration in Japan launched the country's modernization.

The 1800s

The enligtenment ended with the tirn of the century leading to the Romantic Era. The decaded was called the Regienct=y in Britain (after the Prince Refent). And the Empire era in France after Napoleon. The 1800s decade was a period of intense global conflict, including some of the greatest battles in military history. There was also territorial expansion and early industrial innovation, mostly in Britain. The French Revolution rather surprisingly led to a new imperial monarchy. Gen. Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor of France (1804). The decade was dominated Napoleon and his stunning series of military victories. His greatest victory was Austerlitz which forced European powers to come to terms with him (1805). Adm. Nelson's naval victor at Trafalgar defeating an allied French-Spanish fleet , however, limited his expansion. While Napoleon's victories in Europe dominated history of the decade, somewhat of a footnote may have been actually more important. Money problems forced Napoleon to sell the Louisiana Territory to the new American Republic (1803). It was not seen as a major event at the time because it was all a virgin wilderness, except for the port of New Orleans. Louisiana doubled the territory of the United States and would be a major step in creating a global powerhouse that would largely determine the outcome of the 20th century. The First Serbian Uprising (1804−13) marked the emergence of Serbia which had been incorporated into the Ottoman Empire (14th century). The Ottomans were begging their declive into the Sick Man of Europe. Despite threats from Napoleonic France, Britain tightened its grip on India in the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05) tightened its grip on India. Britain and the United States ended the slave trade (1807). Britain would use its powerful Royal Navy to end the slave trade after the Napoleonic Wars. Haiti finally gained its independence from France, becoming the first black republic (1804). Britain at the time was remaking the European economy with the Industrial Revolution. Europeans reported important scientific and technological advances which would only accelerate as the century progressed. Perhaps the most significant was John Dalton's atomic theory (1804). A major technological development was the steam engine. This was not something new, but Jmes Watt perfected it (1763-75). His parents prevented wide spreadafoption, but they expired (1800) and the stram ebinge wouls transform human society and power the Industriak Revolution inyo the 19th century. An eearly example was the Clermont in America (1807). It was the dirst ship to demonstrate the viability of using steam propulsion for commercial water transportation.

The 1810s

The 1810s can best be described as a a transformative decade. It included the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the beginning of the Latin American wars of independence. The Mexican War of Independence began with the Grito de Dolores (1810). Napoleon was largely unstoppable on land, except in the Iberian Peninsula. Then he invaded Russia (1812). The Grand Armée of 0.5 million men entered Russia in triumph, but few other than Napoleon and some of his marshals got out alive. Napoleon would fight on for 2 more years, but his hold on Europe was broken. While mighty armies were locked in titanic battles in Europe, a minor war broke out across the Atlantic over trade and maritime rights. The United States declared war on Britain (1812) which has been impressing American seamen to man the ships needed to fight Napoleon. British leaders were not yet taking the American Republic seriously, most assuming it was bound to fail. Britain even maintained forts on the Western Frontier. The War of 1812 was essentially for America a second war of independence. It was minor event compared to what was happening in Europe--but one with profound long term consequences. TThe Industial Recolution was still primarily aBritish development, but cut off th interntion trade vby the Riyal Navy we see important developments in America. Than we might say 1815 erupted. Napoleon escaped from confinement on Elba, but was finally defeated at Waterloo (1815). The war between America and Britain ended with Gen. Andrew Jackson's flag-waving American victory at New Orleans against a large professional British army (1815). The real outcome was that Britain began to take American seriously and would never again challenged American dominance of North America. A development that would save Britain and Western Civilization in the 20th century. If all of that was not enough for one year, largely unknown to Americans and Europeans, Mount Tambora erupted (1815). This was an active strato-volcano on the far-away island of Sumbawa in the Lesser Sunda Islands (modern Indonesia). It produced nothing less than than the largest and most destructive volcanic eruption, actually explosion in recorded human history. The result was a global climate disruption -- the infamous 'Year Without a Summer'. The United States experienced the 'Era of Good Feelings' (1815-25). The end of the war with Britain brought a wide-spread sense of national unity, a surge in patriotism, and the demise of the the Federalist Party as Americans surged west over the Appalachians into the vast unsettled Frontier. Manifest Destiny became the touch stone of the American spirit. At sea the Royal Navy attacked the slave trade. Notably no other country joined the British in this effort, many actually opposed what Britain was doing. Often ignored is that only two countries (Britain and America) had meaningful Abolitionist Movements. Most Americans thought the slavery issue was solved by the Missouri Compromise (1820). It was not. Modern historians obsess over the slavery issue which while am undeniably horrific system, was not what impacted most working people around the world. Modern woke historians ignore a much more vital development. America had unceremoniously and with little attention around the world unlocked the genie of human success. Congress with the Northwest Ordinance (1787) had mandated that the Western wilderness would go to small-scale family farmers, the people who actually worked the land. And provided for the financing of public schools for their children. This was the first time any country in history had taken such bold steps and would over the course of the 19th century produce the most powerful and successful country in world history. Something which Marxist professors prevent from being taught in American schools. The Congress of Vienna sought to reestablish the Ancien Régime throughout a Europe racked by war and introduced to radical ideas (1815). The Great Powers also sought to reestablish Spanish rule in Latin America, but were blocked by one of their members--Britain with its powerful Royal Navy. In Latin American Wars of Independence for the most part successfully destroyed Spanish colonial rule creating independent republics from the Rio Grande south to Magellan Straits. Tragically because of the legacy of Spanish colonial rule (the Encomiena and Repartimiento) the land did not as in the United States go to the people who worked it, but rather to form large landed estates (haciendas) worked by a large, uneducated landless Amer-Indian peasantry which benefited little from their toils. Only in Brazil did European influence prevail, but only for a few more years.

The 1820s

Europe in the 1820s was recovein from over two dcades of War after the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo (1815). The Industrial Revolution was just beginning to tricle from Britan to America and Continntal Europe. The Congress of Vienna sought contain revolutionty movements. A eactionary Bourbon monarch was installed in France. There would be outbreaks as well as foundational scientific discoveries. It was clear that by the 1820s that the American Revolution (unlike the Frenh Revoluton) was working and that reoublicnism was not a guarantee of chaos and disorder. A wave of nationalist and liberal uprisings occured through the peripheries of Europe, including Greece, Italy, Portugl, and Spain. TRhe most impotant was the Greek War of Independence (1821–29). The Greeks fought to gain independence from the Ottoman Empire, atracring widespewad Europeam support, including volunteers like the poet Lord Byron. The British Royal Navy woild play a role. It would the behinning of the unraveling of the great European empires. And further oprisings would tke plavc to the north in the Balkans which would become famous as a place of political intabiliy. Britain as a result of Trafalgar (1805) rukled the waves nd as a result began rebulding the empire lost with the Americn Revolution. Along with aquiring new colonies negan using the Royal Navy to end the slave trade. It also used the Royal Navy to prevent the recolonization of Latin America. The last major battle of the Latin-Americn Wars of Revoluion was the Battle of Ayacchucho in Peru (1824). There had been some consideration of joint bo-colonial statement with America. The United Statesdecided to go it alone wity the Monroe Doctrine (1823), but it would be he Royal Navy that for the time being would be the decisive force, alyhough the U.S. Navy would conduct a few anti slavery patrols. No European Government would join Britain in this endevor. At play here were the growing abolitioist movmments in Britain and America. But another imprtant economic movemnt waa at play. The Industrial Revolution was slowly shiftig ecomomic power from the landed Aristocracy to the bourgoies industrial investors armed with capitalism and tecnology. Exploers were beginning to fill in araes that were dark spots on existing maps. Scottish explorer Alexander Gordon Laing became the first European to reach the historic city of Timbuktu (1826). Major events were unfolding in America. Thefoundingfathers creating the Constitution had side stepped the slavey issue, noist thinking it was a dying institutio. It was until the Cotton Gin turned it into a horific brutal money making machine in the South. This created a a divisive sectional issue that was becoing apparaent even during the Era of Good Feelings (1817-25). The result was the Missouri Compromise (1820). Most Americans belived this had settled the issue. It had not, but did put off the rconning for four decades by which time he Northern States dominatd the Union. By the 1820, the United States dominated the heartland of North America with its copious resources, but explotation was impeded becuse the Applachin Mountins blocked access to eastern markets. And the Mississippi River and tributaries meant that commerce flowed in only one direction. By the 1820s both these restaints were cracked. The Erie Canal after 8 years of construction was completed (1825). This not only opened up what at the time was the West to settle, buy Eastern markets for Western goods. And improving steam engins meat river boats whih could sail up the Mississipi and Ohio. And the railroads followed soon after. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was the first commercial common carrier railroad in the United States (1827). Andrew Jac was elected president (1828) leading to Jacksonian era and Jacksinian democracy. Modern woke historians fixated on slavery miss what this meant. Basically an entire continent teeming with resources was put into the hands of a democratic people who not only owned the land they worked and whose children were beung educated by one of the world's first public school system, but who lived under a capitalist econmomic aystem. It was in economic terms a nuclear expolsion. Note that the really explosive growth took place after the Civil War. Basically the same phenomenon we note with the 20th century Asian Tigers. We also see moreva moresientific duscoveries. Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that electric currents produce magnetic fields, leading directly to William Sturgeon's invention of the electromagnet (1825). Watch a short video depicting what everyday life and routines looked like for families in 1820s America: Watch a short video depicting what everyday life and routines looked like for families in 1820s America: >

The 1830s

The monasrchial hold on Rurope i,posed by the Congress of Vienna (1815) began to weaken. France overthrew its conservative monarch in the July Revolutionm (July 1830). The conservative monarch was replaced with a more liberal one. This sparked the Belgian Revolution and a split from the Dutch (1830) and other liberal revolts across Europe. The Poles in Congess Poland rose up against the Russians and were brutally supressed (November 1830). American continued growing, but with a still small population compared to Europe. French diplomat Alexis de De Tocqueville's pblished Democracy in America (1835). Immigration was still relatively limited, but given America's small population was important. The largest portion of the immigrants were Germans. President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act (May 1830). This forcibly displaced some 60,000 Native leading to the tragic Trail of Tears--often exagerated by woke historians. Abolitionism was bubbling under the surface, but the Americn and the Britih movements were the only such movements of any significance. President Jackson took on the Second Bank of the United States impeding the development of a nationl curreny which would harm economic expansion. Perhaps the nost important development in America was that the building of the Erie Canal from the Hudson River to the Great Lakes saw mot only excelerated westward expansion was turned the already imprtsant port of New Yorl into a powerhouse that would generate Ameica's economic rise. Railroads began to appear beginning to appear, a major step in the Industrial Revolution. The railroads competed with, but did not completely replace the canals, such as the Erie Canal in America. The railroads would be a huge boost to European economies. On America it accelerated westward migration east ofthe Mississippi. Joseph Smith organized the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in New York (1830). British Parliamentary reform took a mahor step--the Reform Act of 1832 expanded widened popular representation, stabilizing the political landscape in a way that was not occurring on the Continet. Princess Victoria ascended to the British throne (1837). This began her historic and lengthy reign. Reoublics hadbeen estanlished in most of Latin America, except Brazil. The democaticc and economically successful pattern set in he Unted Sates was not replicated. primarily because the social structure created by Spain (the Encomienda and Repartimiento) was not replaced. The Europeans cominued to have trouble trading wih China, hey imply did not hve producs the Chimese wanted. This was especilly severe with the Bolvian silver mines supporting the Manila Galleons played out. The British in India had an answer--opium. But for obvious reasons, Chinese Imperial authtoritie attempt to restrict the trade. The result was the First Opium War (1839-42). Here for the first time the power relation ship with China reslting from the Inmdustrial Revolution was on display. Major changes as a result of the Industrial Revilution were occuring on the Coninent, esecially in Germny, still divided into many different principalities. The Zollverein abolished customs charges within the German Confederation (1834). This and the impact of the Frencgh Revolution was creating a rising nationalist spirit. Austria had been the modt prstigious state wihin he Holy Roman empire. But Napolepon had dusmantled this srtcture and Prusdia was rising. Prussia unnlike Austria was industrilising, fed by massive coal deposits in the Rhineland and Silesia. The question became aeiund which country would Germany unify.

The 1840s

The decade began with the Opium War in China (1839-42). A colonial war which for the first time showed the dramatic shift in power between nackward East and industrualizing West. The Amistad Case wound its way through Anerican courts (1841) as the slavery issue ikncreasingly divided Americans. Mexico and America fought a War (1846-48). It was little noticed in Europe, but woyld have vast consequences. The potato by the 19th century had become a mainstay of the European diet by the 19th century. European crops began failing at mid-decade. A blight affected tghe harvest (1845). But no whre was itas severe as Ireland. One of the most tragic events of modern European history ocuured in Ireland--The Great Famine. At the end of the decade, Eurooe was rocked by the Revolutions of 1848. Major inventiobns began to transform North America and Europe. Despite the lack of respecyed unibersities and technical institutes, manyb of those inventions came from America. The first electrical telegraph sent by Samuel Morse from Baltimore to Washington, D.C. (1844). Elias Howe patented the sewing machine in 1846. This device was to have a major impact on the fashion and garment industry, both for children's and adult clothes. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published the The Communist Manifesto (1848). Marxist ideas proved extremely influential in the 20th century despite the fundamental errors an economic and social thought. The California Gold Rush followed the Mexican-American War, bringing tens of thousands of immigrants to California and providing needed capital just as America was beginning its industrial revolution.

The 1850s

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