Figure 1.--Boys around the world often play war. We see boys in both the Allied countries and the Central Powers playing war. This was also the case in America during World War I, even when it was still neutral and largely pacifist. Before World War I, the theme may have been more cowboys and Indians--popular in books and the new movies. With the outbreak of World War I, this quickly became the popular theme. Here we see a 1916 illustration of boys at play in the popular 'Life Magazine'. The caption was, 'Aw Jimmy! go on! be a German!' The problem the boys faced when playing was who was going to be the Germans. No one wanted to play the Germans. The Germans had become so unpopular so early in the War that none of the boys wanted to play the 'dastardly' Germans. Illustraror: John C. Conacher in 'Life Magazine' (February 24, 1916).

The one strongly held opinion in America with the outbreak of the War was that America should hold to its long term isolationist traditions. There were efforts to aid the starving Belgians and to negotiate a peaceful end of the conflict, but there was no interest in entering the War. German-Americans were not the only group opposed to entering the War. Here sympathy with Germany was combined with strongly held pacifist sentiment. Irish Americans with anti-British sentiments were also opposed to entering the War. German Americans were, however, the largest and most influential group. There was some support for Britain. The most outspoken proponent was former President, Theodore Roosevelt. There was some sympathy with the Germans among the large German ethnic community, but the overwhelming desire on the part of Americans was to stay out of the war. This does not mean that Americans were neutral concerning who launched the war or on the conduct of the war. From the very beginning, most Americans saw the Germans who invaded neutral Belgium as the aggressor nation. Most Americans as a result of the German invasion of neutral Belgium and mistreatment of Belgian civilians from the onset saw Germany as the major aggressor and a lawless nation. The American assessment of Germany only deteriorated as the War continued. The reports of German atrocities in Belgium began to change the generally positive view that most Americans held of the Germans. This was an entirely new assessment. Before the War, Germany was an admired nation. Not only had America not had any diplomatic differences with Germany (unlike Britain), but the Germans had become the largest ethnic group in America. These reports were inflated by British propaganda, but were not entirely false. And then there was a steady drip of war reports that steadily darkened the American view of Germany, including U-boat attacks on shipping, RMS Luisitania, the introduction of poison gas, and Zeppelin bombing of cities. The German sinking of Lusitania and the terrible loss of life cemented the new American assessment of Germany. The American assessment of Germany, however, did not mean that Americans wanted to go to war with Germany. Despite the public repulsion to German actions, most Americans wanted no part of the War.

Initial Opinions (1914)

The United States Government when war broke out in Europe, immediately declared the country's neutrality. President Woodrow Wilson stated that the United States must be 'impartial in thought as well as in action' That was unrealistic if not unconstitutional, the President had no right to control personal thought. Germany's violation of Belgium’s tilted U.S. public opinion at the onset toward the Allies.The one strongly held opinion in America with the outbreak of the War (August 1914) was that America should hold to its long-held isolationist traditions. Since the Revolution, the United States had followed Washington's advice and stayed out of European affairs. This was strongly held opinion throughout America. America The country was growing into its potential. It was now the world’s largest agricultural and industrial power. No European country had comparable potential power. he United Sates had not converted its raw potential power into military power. It was rapidly transitioning from a rural agriculture to an urban industrial society which was creating great opportunities and challenges. Americans continued to be focused on domestic affairs rather than conflicts abroad. Few Americans had any desire to fight a war in Europe. And mothers had no desire to send their son's off to war, although they could not yet vote. There were concerns about Germany invading neutral Belgium, but no substantial belief that America should do anything about it. Germany should enter the War. Then reports about the food crisis in Belgium appeared, further depicting the Germans in a negative light. There were efforts to aid the starving Belgians and to negotiate a peaceful end of the conflict, but there was no interest in entering the War.

European Thought

European views of America varied. Ordinary Europeans had generally positive views, witnessed by the steady waves of European immigrants flooding into America. British leaders looked down on the Americans a rude and uncultured, but understood America's raw potential power. The French were desperate for manpower to continue the War. The Germans were fixed more on ethnicity and did not understand how a country without a dominant ethnicity could ever generate nationalist thought or real power.

American National Origins

Most Americans had European roots, but that is deceiving. The majority had British origins, but not recent origins. Few Americans with British ancestors had any existing family ties. They had come to America decades if not centuries earlier. This was not the case of more recent immigrants The majority of Americans leaned toward the Allies. A shared language and heritage with Britain were strong ties. Ties with France went going back to the Revolution and now democratic and other cultural connections, although interestingly, few French people were among the immigrant mix. German Americans were more difficult to measure. Germans at the time were the largest and arguably the most successful ethnic minority. Germans had emigrated because they were dissatisfied with opportunities available to them or the militarist direction of Germany. But still there were underlying cultural emotions. A substantial part of the German-American population sympathized with their mother country, but virtually none had any desire to participate in a European war. What the German-Americans wanted was for America to stay out of the War. And German Americans were the largest and most influential group. German-Americans were not the only group opposed to entering the War. Here sympathy with Germany was combined with strongly held pacifist sentiment. Irish Americans with anti-British sentiments were also opposed to entering the War. Although the Irish began entering America (1940s), they had probably the most fervently held allegiance to their mother country. There was some support for Britain, but it was not based on national origins. Few Americans ha any real connection with Britain's. Few Americans of British origins has any family connection or remembered personal experience. For the most part, only the wealthy could afford to visit Europe.

Interventionists

There were Americans who wanted the United States to enter the War. These feelings were mostly found among the country's Anglo-American elite. These were not people who recently immigrated or for the had family ties in Britain. They were well-to- do Americans who value America's cultural ties with Britain. These were the same people who were arranging marriages for their daughters with the British aristocracy. (One of which was Jennie Jerome Churchill--Churchill's mother.) There were activities in both sides of the Atlantic. an elite British network that formed the backbone of global imperial strategy from the late 19th century through the mid-20th century. It identifies the formation, goals, and operations of a secretive group that sought to maintain and extend British global influence through education, media, and international policy. Only the British side there was an actual organization. Three men (Cecil Rhodes, William T. Stead, and Reginald Brett) actually formed a secret society to influence British imperial and foreign policy, including relations with America (1891). 【Quigley】 There was a dual structure: an inner circle called the Society of the Elect and an outer circle named the Association of Helpers. With Rhodes as the leader and Stead, Brett, and Alfred Milner as his helpers junta. And there were even efforts to educate young people--the Rhodes Scholarships. The goal was economic, geopolitical, and cultural dominance of the Anglo-Saxon English-speaking countries. Transatlantic culture and Anglo-American relations developed over the long 19th century). Connections developed through language, the arts, racial attitudes, tourism, and heritage. 【Malchow】 The American elite was dominated by people with British heritage with values inherited from the British. This was not accidental. Most of what has made America work comes from our British heritage, especially political freedom (democracy) and economic freedom (capitalism). Cultural activities served to reinforce , shape, confirm and maintain all kinds cultural topographies, including business, finance, literature, education, and much more. This is one reason why Britain was able to obtain massive loans from U.S. banks which were staffed by the Anglo-American elite. A financial group organized by J.P. Morgan helped keep the Allies in the War. The financiers were all men with cultural ties to Britain. In contrast, Germany's shaky finances impeded their war effort. A less important development coming out of the Anglo-American elite--the Preparedness Movement. No one was under any illusions that they could change American public opinion about entering the War. The next best thing was the preparedness movement. It was the idea that America needed to build up its virtually nonexistent army in case it was dragged into the war. Preparedness was backed by many prominent Americans, including former president Theodore Roosevelt. This generated the the Plattsburg Movement, a series of summer camps that taught attendees basic military skills. Almost all of the participants were people of British heritage. The most outspoken proponent of intervention was former President, Theodore Roosevelt. (The Roosevelts began as Dutch settlers, but over time joined the Anglo-American ascendancy. Roosevelt was an early critic of President Woodrow Wilson and neutrality. At first he advocated that the United States should prepare for war and not avoid its responsibilities. His frustration with Wilson led to a series of letters and public statements. He insisted that neutrality would ultimately fail as the war escalated, and he was particularly incensed by Germany's aggressive actions, such as invading neutral Belgium. Ie was incensed by German sinking of the the RMS Lusitania (1915) which he deemed 'inconceivable' for the United States to ignore. He wanted to lead America into war. He offered to form a volunteer division, like the Rough Riders. Wilson refused to allow him to command any troops in the war and basically ignored him. Roosevelt called Wilson a 'coward'. Tragically, America's entry into the War led to the death of his youngest son -- Quentin. Roosevelt was deeply affected.

1915

The strongly held view to stay out of the War does not mean that Americans were neutral concerning who launched the war or on the conduct of the war. From the very beginning, most Americans saw the Germans who invaded neutral Belgium as the aggressor nation. Most Americans as a result of the German invasion of neutral Belgium and mistreatment of Belgian civilians from the onset saw Germany as the major aggressor and a lawless nation. The American assessment of Germany only deteriorated as the War continued. The reports of German atrocities in Belgium began to change the generally positive view that most Americans held of the Germans. Then reports of German barbarity were published, decidedly shifting attitudes in an anti-German direction which would only intensifier as the War progressed. This was an entirely new assessment. Before the War, Germany was an admired nation. Germany was one of the most admired nations in the world Educated people learned German, especially people involved in the sciences. People went to Germany to earn advanced studies. (Even Franklin Roosevelt's family.) Not only had America not had any diplomatic differences with Germany (unlike Britain), but the Germans had become the largest ethnic group in America. These reports were inflated by British propaganda, but were not false. German solders had burned down the irreplaceable medieval library at Louvain and had executed Belgian civilians and Allied sympathizers, including British nurse Edith Cavell. The war at sea entered the picture. It was not only Britain that interfered with trade. The Germans used U-boats and surface raiders. Britain enforced a naval blockade on Germany. The British blockade was criticized. These actions prevented neutral nations from trading freely with the Allies and the Central Powers. Because of the Royal Navy the Allies were able to purchase far more U.S. goods and supplies than the Central Powers. The German U-boats could sink some freighters, but the British Royal Navy completely cut off German maritime commerce with its huge fleet and North Sea blockade. Other countries including the United States complained about the British blockade, ships were not being sunk and people killed. The British blockade was far less damaging than Germany’s policy of submarine warfare. Germany introduced a policy if unrestricted submarine warfare violating the accepted cruiser rules (early 1915). This mean sinking sinking all merchant ships going to or from Britain without warning. Protests escalated, but it was the United States that mattered. And this came to a climax when a German U-boat sank the passenger liner RMS Lusitania (May 7, 1915), killing 1,198 people, including 128 Americans. U.S. public opinion exploded. President Wilson threatened war. Germany offered to restrict unconditional submarine warfare. There was a steady drip of war reports that steadily darkened the American view of Germany, including U-boat attacks on shipping, RMS Luisitania, the introduction of poison gas, and Zeppelin bombing of cities. The German sinking of Lusitania and the terrible loss of life cemented the new American assessment of Germany. The American assessment of Germany, however, did not mean that Americans wanted to go to war with Germany. Despite the public repulsion to German actions, most Americans wanted no part of the War.

1916

There was still no widespread support for entering the War (1916). Preparedness advocates were unable to achieve any major change in public opinion. There was a small increase in the U.S. Army and Navy. America had a presidential election (1916). The War was one of the issues. President Wilson had won because the Republicans were divided in 1912. Wilson managed a narrow victory in the presidential election (November 1916). It is widely attributed to his keeping America out of the War, it was even the Democratic campaign slogan, "He kept us out of war." President Wilson was uncomfortable with he slogan because he was aware of the difficulties. After securing his reelection. President Wilson set out to bring the war to a close. He had tried earlier, but used only persuasion. Neither the Allies or the Germans were interested in peace. Public officials had no interest in going back to their citizens and explaining why the War had to be fought and achieved nothing. This time Wilson decided to use more than persuasion. He has strong cards to play, at least with the Allies. The War had essentially bankrupted the Allies. The Allies relied on massive loans from American banks to continue the War. These loans were made with out the approval or endorsement of the U.S. Government. President Wilson was not even consulted. Wilson threaten to use the power of the Federal Reserve to interfere with those loans. This led to Britain and France reluctantly agreed to go to the bargaining table. 【Tooze】 Germany was different. Militarily they were doing well, but the home front was falling apart, primarily because of food shortages. And they did not see the Allies offering any important concessions. The Germans saw a need to win the War before the home front deteriorated further. Food shortages were becoming increasingly severe. As a result, the Germans decided not to negotiate, but to see a military solution.

1917

The situation moved quickly in 1917. Germany had already been sabotaging American industry which by itself could have brought America into the War. The German Government did what they had every reason to believe would mean war. Germany announced it was resuming unrestricted submarine warfare (February 1, 1917). This was a military policy that had previously been suspended in response to American demands. Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg, who claimed it was necessary because of the destructive designs of the Allies. The diplomatic exchange was followed by a public announcement (February 4). Hollweg was pushed by the military who assured him that the Americans did not have a large army and the U-boats would prevent the ability of any army formed to get to France. They were sure that that they could starve out Britain and obtain a military solution before America could enter the War. A factor here was the widely held German belief that an ethnically diverse country was not a real nation and could not bean effective combatant. Britain of course felt vert differently and had been working since the day the War began to bring America into the war. This alone might have meant war, but the sabotage was also a factor. At this point the British played what would prove to be he the decisive stroke. They informed the U.S. Embassy of the Zimmerman Telegram (February 19). This was an offer of an alliance to Mexico which would return the American Southwest to Mexico. Te British had intercepted and decoded it. The Wilson Administration after authenticating it, released it to the press (March 1). The press exploded and America public began to shift. There at first was some speculation Foreign Minister Zimmerman, however, inexplicably ended the speculation. In a rambling speech attempting to justify himself, he essentially admitted he had sent the message (March 3). He put the blame on America for the breach in relations. He was convinced that Germany was posed to win the War and America was being unreasonable. He explained "We have 500,000 reservists in America who would rise in arms against your government." This of course really through fuel on the fire. The American public was outraged. It confirmed the image that many in America had formed of Germany as a reckless, outlaw nation. Public opinion shifted toward a declaration of war. 【Tuchman】 Germany had recklessly turned a largely neutral, pacifist nation into an active belligerent. As a result, there was now little opposition to entering the War. President Wilson asked for a declaration of war (April 2). The Senate voted approval the same day. The House 4 days later (April 6). The votes were overwhelming. The Senate passed the resolution passed 82–6. The House passed it 373–50. Wilson signed it into law the same day, making the United States officially at war with Germany (April 6). The overwhelming vote is astoning given how thoroughly so many Americans had been opposed to war. German officials had to work very hard to bring this about. America was not just any country. It had a huge population with a an industrial capability much lager than that of Germany. So the question became, could America mobilize and bring its potential power to bear in France before Germany could win the war there. It is interesting given the strength of American pacifism how swiftly Americans fervently embraced the War effort. There was full support and very little opposition. Opposition would come, but only after the War,

Sources

Malchow, Howard LeRoy. Howard LeRoy Malchow Transatlantic Culture in the Long Nineteenth Century : Anglo-American Relations and Intertwined Identities (2025), 288p.

Quigley, Carroll. The Anglo-American Establishment.

Roberts, Andrew. (Harper Collins: New York, 2007), 736p.

Tooze, Adam. The Deluge: Great War, America and the Remaking of the Global Order, 1916-31 (Viking: New York, 2014), 644p.

Tuchman, Barbara. The Zimmermann Telegram >

Created: 7:27 PM 11/12/2015
Last updated: 9:44 PM 11/21/2025