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Since greade school I have been fascinated by geography. Geography is not an easy disipline to define in part because of all the different braches of geography and the activities with which geograophers are involved. The basic definition is smething along the line of the study of the aerial differentiation of the earth's surface. People from ancient times have written about geography. Only since World War II, however, were plate tectonics understood which are the primary mechanism of geological change that are reponsible for geographic features. What originally attracted me to geography was the vast physical and human differences around the world. Only gradually did I become aware of how important geography was in so many aspects of human endevor. This has included both history and clothing, the two major aspects of our HBC website. Geography has affected much more, including climate, cultural, and economics. It has also affected human physiological development which left Native Americans dangeously vulnerable to Old World diseases. Many HBC pages touch on geography and we want to create a page to help HBC readers interested in geography find the pages we have developed. HBC is fortunate to have a geographer among its contributors. He tells us, "I have a Ph.D in what I like to think of as "Historical Geography." I was interested in trying to recreate landscapes (physical and cultural) from the past, and examine factors that impacted and shaped these landscapes. Geographers do other things, of course, such as develop Geographical Information Systems (GISs), hazards research, etc. I am happy to report that university geography departments have grown in size since I was in school. Unfortunately, there has been a trend to merge geography with other disciplines into "social studies". Geographical Awareness quizzes have shown a need to go back to basics, because students have little knowledge of place names these days. School budgets and cutbacks in staff have been a problem."
The origins of geography date back to ancient times. There was a relationship between geography and astronomy in that the major debate in ancient times was whether the earh was flat or round (global). We know much more about the astronomical thinking of ancient civilization than geography, but there was probably often a relationship.
The Chaldean (a Babalonian people) are commonly named as the first astronomers. Eygpt acquired much leaning from Babylonia, but their learning became emnired in superstion and myth. It is in Greece that geography emerged as an important discipline and the first named geographers. The Greeks debated geographical issues with some fervor. The first geograpoher we note is Thales (6th century BC), obe of the seven sages. He saw the earth in a astronomical context and argued that contrary to the accepted belief that the earth was a plain, ot was like other heavenly bodies was a globe and at the center of the universe. Other geographers following Thales continued to insist thsat the earth was flat. Greeks like Anaximander, Anaximenes, Pythagoirus continued the astronomical debate. Their work, however, did not stringy influence populsar thought which was more determined by the obvious appearances. Thus the central issue of geograophy (the shape if the earth) was not really answered until the end of the medievsal era by practcal navigators like Coumbus and thinkers like Copernicus abd Gaileo. Long before this the Greeks continued to ework on geograoj\hy, Herodotus often called the father f history, mixed in a great deal og\f geograohy with his historical work (5th century BC). He was followed by Aristotle (4th century BC). He would dominate Westerm thouht for an incredible two milenia. Aristole in De Coelo proivides us a summany of sancient gepographic ans astromomical understanding. Aristole through reasing rather than physical evidence cponcluded that the western coasdt of Spain was near India. Alexander's campaigns added immensly to the Western world's understsanding of physical geography. The astnomomer Hipparchus in Bithynia (3rd century BC) began calculating the longitude and lasttitude of gepgraphicv places from celestial observations. Geograophers at the time did mot seiuze on his work, but it was critical to mapping. Geography is not just rekated to astronomy, but also to geometry which is necessary for calculating the cirumferemce, diameter, and volume of the earth, Thus Eratoshenes. a desciple of Euclid, was probablt the first author who attempted to develop geography into an organized discipline (3rd century) although his knowledge of northern and western Europ was sketcy at best. The Romans did not advance the tools and discipline of geography, the did acquire ememnse geograohic knowledge as they expanded their empire. Plutarch mentions the errection oif milliaria along the Roman roads which provided fefinitive measures of distance (2nd century BC). Ceasar commissioned a survey of the Roman Empire (44 BC) which developed as a mahor and lenthy effort. Part of the result was a huge painting in the portico of Agrippa. The results also appeared in Pliny's Nsatural History. The Greek geographer Strabo proviuded important descriptions. Other impoertant Roman geograpohers were Antonius Pius and Claudius Ptolemy. Ptoleny of Alexandria constructed a system of gography which dominated the Western mind until Vasco de Gams and Golumbus provided the information needed to cotruct a realistic understanding of geography (15th century). Their voyages were the result of the inquisness that had characterized the West combined with the technology to conduct extended voyages. In is interesting how many other civilizatins lacked the inquidtbeness of the West, even civilizations like China which had the technology to conduct extended voyages.
Geography has affected humans in manydifferent ways. Early geogaphers focused in reportiung on physical features and cultural difference. Gradually measurement became important and methods to fix locations which led to accurate mapping (cartology). Only relatively recently did geographers began to understasnd and describe the mny ways which geograpohy has impsaced humans and civilization. Here at HBC, this is the area of primary concern.
Geography was a factor shaping culture since the appearance of human hunter-gathes. The more primitive the people the greater the impact. But even as humpan culure became more sophisticated, geography continued tio be important. Geography has been a major factor in the development of civilization. It is no accident that civilization first appeared in great river valleys.
Geography is a major factor affecting climate. And climate has affected both history and clothing in many ways. Some argue that changing cliate was a factoir in forcing primates down from the trees, out of the forest and on to the African savanah resulted in the development of bipedalism, the destinctibe characteristic of homonoids. We now know that homonoids developed bipedialism before they emerged from the forest as a result of the 1994 discovery of Ardi (Ardipithecus ramidus) in Ethiopia. [Science] Ardi has been dated as 4.4 million years old. this is a million years older than Lucy (Australopithecus afrarensis).
Historians in recent years have given increased attention to climatology. The most obvious of course is the Ice Age which created a Bearing Sea land bridge to the Americas. Historians are finding climatic links to other major events such as the fall of the Romasn Empire and the plages. On recent years there has been increassing attention to the Little Ice Age. Climate has affected major military campaigns such as Naoleon's invasion of Russia (1812) and the World War II German invasion of the Soviet Union (1941). One wonders how Hitler who considered himself a military genius was suprised that it got cold in Russia during the winter. Climatolgy is now at the center of the climate change debate. Climate has also affected clothing. One major impact on clothing is utlity. While fashion has other iunfuences, the first major influence was utility, protection from cold weather. And this protective clothing enavke humans to populate nearly every corner oif the globe. While the other influences such as fashion have become increasingly important, climate continues to be an imprtant factor. A new development is sun-safe clothing.
Geography has also played a major role in economics. This was especially the case in the early phase of human development when man was dependent on the resources immediaely available. This can be seen in modern times with tribal peoples living in areas with limited resources developing only primitive life styles. A good example is the the Alacaluf in Tierra del Fuego.
For milenia after the development of civilization, economies were in lage measure agicultural focused on food and texttile production. This meant that the crops and livestoickj were primary based on what was available and this was stilly powerfully affected by geograpohy. As humans expanded their transport technology there was an exchnge of plants and animals. This weas nost significant after the discovery of the Americas. Plants lik the potato and corn had an enormous impact when the were introduced in Europe. The geographic destribution of metals was also important. This was a factor in the industrial revolution. This of course first occurred in England where coal and iron were located close together . Technology can over come geographic limitations, but just as agriculture developed in river valies, industry first developed where iron and coal occurred close together and were relatively easily accessible.
Geography has had an obvious impact on history. Just how significant is a matter of conjecture, but that it is very important there is no doubt. Anthropologists have established almost without doubt tht mankind developed in Africa. There is considerable difference of opinion as to how man spread out over the globe. Here geography must have played a major role. Some accounts suggest man first moved along coast lines. Notably all of the early civilizations emerged in river valleys. One at the edge of Africa, the others outside of Africa. The key factor with rivers was the importantance of dependable water source and alluvial flooding enriching the soil. In addition the movement away from tropical climate was a factor. Herding was based on rich graslands and grass is most lush beyond the tropics. The same is true of crop yields of important grains--species of grasses. [Cook] It was the agricultural abundance in these river vallies that gave rise to the first civilizations. Europe's emergence in the 16th century was strongly associated with geography. [Diamond, Guns.] Geography has continued to influence history. There are of course many other instances of geography affecting history. Russian history was affected by the vulnerability of the flat to Steppe to inasion. The geographic isolation of the Americas were factors in the success of the Conquistadores over the Native American civilizations. [Cook] Russian history is marked with invasion from east and west. The origins of Russia itself evolved around the major rivers. The Huns and Mongols swept east over Russia from the Mongolian Plain. It was the Sweedes, Poles and Germans that swept west. Britain in contrast benefitted by the security afforded by the Channel. At sea, it was an island nation, Britain, that became the world's preeminent sea power. An American naval strategist theorized that in modern history, command of the seas has been desisive. [Mahan] This ground-breaking assessment of seapower was premissed on geography. Geographical factors had a huge impact on the settlement of America. New York's rise was based on the important natural harbor and the fact that the Hudson River was an important route inland, made even more important when the Erie Canal linked the Huson to the Great Lakes, opening the West and turning New York into the most important city in America.
Geographic separation left Native Americans dangeously vulnerable to Old World diseases. This did not show up in body types, but it did affect the genetic resistance to Old World diseases. The key factor here appears to be that the New World had few animals that could be domesticated. Old World people domesticated a range of animals and lived in close contact to then. The result was to build up immunities to disease related to those domesticated animals. This domestication appears to have occurred asfter Siberian tribes made the transit ton the New World. Thus New World people developing in isolation did not develop the immunities.
Geography has afftected human physiology in a mumber of ways. Adaptsation to cold seems to have been a major force. Thus we see differences in eye, hair, and skin color in northern Europe. This occured as humans migrated out of Africa to northern climates. White skin, light hair nd blue eyes were adaptations to colder weather. Native Americans were much more recent arrivals to northern climes, perhaps explaing why they did not make phyiolgical asaptations. The eskimos reponse to the cold climate was primarily cultural (clothing, housing, and diet). They did mot make the same genetic adaptations that occurred in northern Europe. Perhaps the success of their cultural adapttions help to make genetic adaptatioins unecessay. Presumably nose and lip features were also affected. As native Americans moved into the high alditudes of the Andes, we see chest sizes (lung capacity) being affected. It is interesting that Native Americans did not make phisiolgical adaptations to cold, but did to altitude, suggesting that genetiuc changes can come relative fast if cultural if cultural adaptatioins are not possible. This genetic shift in the Andes occurred very rapidly. The same occurred in the Himilayas, but over a longer time frame. A characteistic of east Asians (China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia) is an epicanthal fold in the eye. This is a fold of skin that covers the inner corner of the eye. This gives Asisans a characteristic narrow, almond-shaped shape eye. The value of this adaptation is not clear. It appears to be an adaptation to protect against the cold and windy conditions in northern Asian steppe.
HBC is fortunate to have a geographer among its contributors. He tells us, "I have a Ph.D in what I like to think of as "Historical Geography." I was interested in trying to recreate landscapes (physical and cultural) from the past, and examine factors that impacted and shaped these landscapes. Geographers do other things, of course, such as develop Geographical Information Systems (GISs), hazards research, etc. Through the use of satellites. which revolutionized the collection of accurate place specific data, the GIS has led to such innovations as the directional systems in many cars today. Mapping of the Moon and Mars are extensions of this technology, although, I guess they can hardly be called 'geo', as in geography, any more, being out of this world. I am happy to report that university geography departments have grown in size since I was in school. Unfortunately, there has been a trend to merge geography with other disciplines into "social studies". Geographical Awareness quizzes have shown a need to go back to basics, because students have little knowledge of place names these days. School budgets and cutbacks in staff have been a problem."
Cook, Michael. A Brief History of the Human Race (Norton, 2003), 385p.
Diamond, Jared. Guns, Germs and Steel.
Mahan, Alfred Thayer. The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783 (1890).
Science (October 2, 2009). This special issues of Science include 11 aricles from 47 researchers presenting the findings on Ardipithecus ramidus after 15 years of work.
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