Figure 1.--This Vichy French press photograph shows an event on the 1-year annnivesary of the armistice, meaning surreder to NAZI Germany. We think the group is the Compagnons de France. The caption reads, "Youths of France Observe Armistice Anniversary: Members of a French 'Youth's Camp' sadly light flares in front of the monument to France's war dead on the first anniversary of the armistice with Germany." The caption was passed by the Vichy censor and dated July 16, 1941. Note how the caption tries to pass the Vichy youth movement as representarive of French youth. Also notice the torches. Of all the European youth movements, the Hitler Youth was particularly noted for torch-lit ceremonies.

The youth movement in France during World War II is a much more complicated topic than we had antticipated. In addition to the youth sections of collaborating political parties, several autonomous youth groups operated in the Vichy unoccupied zone. Here we have noted quite a variety of groups which contrasts to other occupied countries in which the German and colaborationist authorities set up a single Fascist youth movement. This was primarily a result of the Germns leaving a substabntial part of France unoccupied for more than 2 years (June 1940-November 1942). We have only limited information on the different French nationalist groups at this time. A factor here is that after liberation (August 1944), the individuals involved for the most part wanted to forget their participation in these groups. There may be some overlap here with different sources using different names for the same group. The dominant idea within the Vichy Youth Secretariat was to create a single national youth organization like the NAZI Hitler Youth organization. Here they encountered opposition from existing groups. The most important being the Catholic Action of the French Youth (ACJF). The Scouts and newly created groups also opposed this idea. The Vichy Youth Secretariat, however, continued to advocate a single French national movement to bring together all of French youth in the spirit of the Vichy National Revolution. Georges Pelorson

Chantiers de Jeunesse (CJ)

A Vichy youth effort was Les Chantiers de la jeunesse (CJ). I think this translates as Youth Singers, but I do not think it was a choral group. They were a uniformed group created for young men of draft age. With Vichy's army limited by the Germans, the CJ was an alternative to national military service which was seen as a character building experience. The CJ was a quasi-military group. The program involved communal living, hard work and indoctrination into the principle's of Vichy's National Revolution. The group was strongly nationalistic, but unlike what Vichy officials anticipated, most members were strongly pro-Allied and anti-German. Their politics varied with many Gaullists and royalists. It was a CJ member, Bonnier de la Chapelle, who assasinated Admiral Darlan in Algiers (December 24, 1942). [MacVane, p. 149.] The attitude of the CJ members toward Vichy and the Germans was not helped when the NAZI reverses meant that more labor was needed in the Reich. Conscription for French workers began to become increasingly important in 1943. Vichy and the Germans began using the CJ to fill the quotas.

(Les) Compagnons de France (CF)

Les Compagnons de France (Companions of France -- CF) was formed in the aftermath of the German victory (July 1940). It was tghe first new organization. The founder was a civil servant and former scoutmaster. It became a major youth group whioh promoted health, physical exercise, outdoor activities, sport, and communal living. Vichy authorities approved the CF as a registered, voluntary youth organization for all of Unoccupied France (August 1940). It was for boys 15-20 years old to do work of 'national unity' such as assisting with the harvest or clearing war damage. As much of the French Army was intered as POWs after the armistace was signed, there was a severe manpower shortage. The French Army secunded officers to serve as leaders. The CF had organized 350 companies with 18,000 members by January 1941. The CF attempted to recruit girls beginning in January 1942, but with little success. Jewish boys were at first allowed to join, but were excluded as Vichy's anti-Semetic policies became more pronounced (May 1942). It was the most heavily subsidized Vichy youth group, although its loyalty to Vichy was questionable. Membership reached 50,000 (early-1942), but then fell off rapidly as German reverses mounted and labor concriptions and food shortages began to increase anti-German feeling. The political orientation of the CF is not easy to categorize. Support from Vichy authorities suggests a Fascist or at least right-wing orientation. Some have argued that the CF's focus on civic responsibility was more oriented to the Boy Scout movement. [Larkin, p. 91.] The CF was outwardly pro-Vichy, but never pro-NAZI, and the oroentation of mny members did not reflct the official pro-Vichy policy. The Germans never trusted it and ordered the organization disbanded (January 1944). The uniform consisted of a dark blue shirt and dark blue long trousers or short pants. Boys wearing shorts wore white knee socks. The boys according to the CF's official handbook wore navy blue berets, leather belt and tie. The color of the tie varied with the boys' ranks; beige for the lower ranks, purple for NCOs, yellow for junior officers, and navy blue for senior officers. This arraingment may have varied as other sources specify different colors.

Équipes Nationales (EN)

The Équipes Nationales (National Teams/Squads--EN) was the only major youth movement officially organized by the Vichy government. The Vichy Youth Secretariat, however, continued to advocate a single French national movement to bring together all of French youth in the spirit of the Vichy National Revolution. Georges Pelorson , a youth specialist and in charge of propaganda at the Youth Secretariat, was perhaps the strongest advocate for a unified Vichy youth movement. Abel Blackwell, the new Minister of National Education, also endorsed the idea. The damage resulting from Allied air raids beginning in 1942, led Vichy to study how to use young people to alleviate the lack of relief and help the populations in distress. This was ghe impetus for the creation of Équipes Nationales (EN) which was as close as Vichy got to a national youth movement. The Germans tolerated EN, but was suspicious of it. They discreetly monitored its development and operation. The first EN Inspector General was Pierre Claudel (November 1942). He was replaced by Olivier Rebaud (May 1943). The Gestapo arrested him (February 1944). Alain Baron replaced him until liberation (August 1944). Pelorson announced the project to create EN during a Paris meeting of Vichy youth movement chaired by Laval (August 1942). It was just before the Torch invasion and the German occupation of the Free Zone. He described EN as Service of Honour of Youth. The goal was to organize youth voluntees for civic and social purposes and to employ them in missions of national importance. The Laval Goberment advocated as a result of the developments in the War and as part of creatung a single, unified youth movement. Marshal Pétain and his private advisors had serious reservations. The influential Catholic Action of the French Youth (ACJF) opposed the idea principally fearing state control of youth. Existing youth groups also opposed it, but in he end it provided way that banned youth organizations like Scouting in the Occupied Zone could discreetly pursue some of their activities. IG Olivier Rebaud who replaced cludel was effective in organizing an important movement. He was calm and selfassured and resisted political pressures from he Youth Secretariat. Rebaud in only a few months had an orgabization with some 30,000 young people operating in both the Free and Occupied Zones. This was a substantial achievement given the German suspisions and even some ifficials in the Laval Government. They were especially concerned that EN would privide cover for young people active in the Resistance. Rebaund resisted the desire of Blackwell and Pelorson to use EN to promote collaborationist propaganda, which is part of the reason the Gestapo arresed him (February 1944). Baron who replaced him was more oriented toward the Germans. EN was not a uniformed group, but they had arm bands and insignia. The emblem was a celtic crossm an emblenm associated with fascism since it is a version of the sun cross, another name for the swastica.

Jeunes de l'Europe Nouvelle (JEN)

The pre-war Comité France-Allemagne (France-Germany Committee) was, after the German victory, revived in September 1940 with a new name, the Groupe "Collaboration. JEN was mostly composed of middle class or wealthy members who above all else were cautious. As it did not aspire to be a political party, it operated in both the occuopied and unoccupied zones. The JEN was very circumspect towards both Vichy and the Germans, its youth branch, Les Jeunes de l'Europe Nouvelle (The Youth of the New Europe), however, was much less inhibited. They came out openly on the German side. Some were even armed by the SD and fought againsdt the Resistance. The JEN also operated among French workers in Germany where it spread collaborationist propoganda with the approval of the Vichy Government. The JEN uniform was a dark blue shirt, black tie, and dark blue trousers.

Jeunesse de France d'Outre Mer (JFOM)

Another "private enterprise" group was the Jeunesse de France d'Outre Mer (The Youth of France and Overseas) which was founded by Henry E. Pugibet and Jean-Marcel Renault in Marseilles during January 1941, but exclusive leadership soon passed to Renault. The JFOM was more comitted to collaborating with the Germans than Les Compagnons de France. It was open to youngsters from 9 to 14 years of age (Les Cadets) and to young adults as old as 25 in the JFOM proper. Jews were excluded from the start. They claimed a membershio of 30,000 in October 1941. The uniform was a grey shirt, dark blue tie, and dark blue trousrs. Girls wore a dark blue skirt. After the Germans occupied the formerly unoccupied area in November 1942, the JFOM joined forces with Bucard's Jeunesse Franciste and thus became part of the only officially recognized youth movement in the north.

(Les) Jeunes du Maréchal

Les Jeunes du Maréchal (Marshall Lads) was organized by Jacques Bousquet who was a teacher at the Lycée Voltaire in Paris. The group was decidely fascist and it took on a pro-German stance. They only functiined in the occupied zone. Their uniforms varied with both navy blue and the lighter French blue. They wore a red reancisque on a white shild on the left breast pocket of their shirt. They were active in recruiting French high school and college boys for the NSKK. The Marshall Lads became so slavishly pro-German that Bousquet actually supressed the organization in July 1943. (One wonders if the War had no begun to go badly for the Germans that Bousquent would have done so. Bousquet went on to become the director of the École des Cdres (Staff Training College) at Chapelle-en-Serval in the occupied zone which was more overtly collabirationist than its opposite number at Uriage in the unoccupied zone.

Mouvement Jeunesse

The Secretaraiat of Youth at Vichy created a Mouveement Jeunesse with the goal of encompassing all youth groups in the unoccupied zone which were sympahthetic to the ideals of the regime. There was also a back-up Les Amis de Jeunesse (Fiends of Youth) movement. Both groups wore a blue or grey shirt with a black tie and daek blue trousers. No information is available on membership, but could not have been large goven the mumber of uniformed youth groups.

Sources

Larkin, M. France since the Popular Front: Government and People 1936-1986 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988).

Yagil, Limoe. "The New Man and the National Revolution of Vichy" (University Press of the Septentrion).