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Hitler with massive allied armies poised on the German eastern and western frontiers authorized Himler to form the Volkssturm (November 1944). Boys and old men were inducted to shore up Germany's crumbling defenses. The Soviets in the east gathered their forces for an all out attack on Berlin. The Western Allies had reducded the Bulge and solved their supply contraints (February 1945). Hitler prepared for the Allied on-slaught by issuing the "Nero Order" (March 19). For Germans that were still under the illusion that Hitler had any real interest in the the welfare of the German people, these actions make clear his total lack of concern. Hitler issued a series of orders designed to destroy the infrasture of Germany, creating a virtual wasteland. The Americans and British began to cross the Rhine, a forbidable challenge, but made easier by the capture of the Remagen Bridge in tact (March 7). The Allies rushed accross the Rhine and a few weeks later at many other sites with landing craft and pontoon bridges. This was followed by Operation Varsity a massive paratroop drop on the German side of the Rhine (March 24). Within weeks the Ruhr, Germany's industrial heartland was surround and huge numbers of Germans soldiers surrendered in the Ruhr pocket. The Rhine was the last significant geographic barrier. Allied forces then began a race accross Germany toward the Russians pressing west.
The NAZIs suffered a series of disatrous military debacles in mid-1944. Thec Allies took Rome (June 4, 1944). Two days later the Allies landed at Normandy (June 6, 1944). After D-Day the Allies crushed the German armies in France, although part of the army escped from the Falaise pocket, leaving their equipment behind. The Allied campaign was so overwealing that the Germand were unable to make a stand at the Seine leading to the liberation of Paris (August 25, 1944). Eisenhower annunces the mext day that the German 7th Army has been destroyed (August 26). Allied armies rolled through Paris in hot pursuit of the retreating Wehrmact. Mongomery and Patton argued for thrusts into Germany, but Eisenhower decided on a broad front campaign. [Chalfont, p. 258.] The success of the Allied campaign in France led to the liberation of Belgium and the southern Neterlands. It Also mean that the Allies were approaching the Reich's western frontiers (September 1944). The failure of Operation Market Garden meant that the Germans could prepare a stand at the Rhine. The situation on the Eastern Front was even more devestating. The Soviets launched an offensive to prevent the NAZIs from concentrating forces agaisdt the Normandy bridgehead. Operation Bagration was timed to begin on the same day the NAZIs invaded the Soviet Union (June 22) 3 years earlier. The target was the Wehrmcht's Army Group Central in Byelorussia. Bagration in many ways was a replay of Barbarossa, only in reverse. The Red Army in a massive 5 weeks campaigm suuceeded in moving the front line west to Warsaw, liberating much of Poland. Army Group Center was shatered. The Red Army completely destroyed 17 Wehrmacht divisions and heavily damaged the combat
effectivness of more than 50 other German divisions. Army Group Central was shattered. It was the single greatest defeat suffered by the Wehrmacht in the
War--worse them the disaster at Stalingrad. The Wehrmact sffered greater casualties than at Stalingrad. [Zaloga] Bagration not only smashed Army Group
Central, but drove the Germans back into Poland. This meant the Red Army was also approaching the frontiers of the Reich.
The Rhine Rive is one of the major rivers in Europe and a waterway of almost mystical importance to the German people. "The Watch on the Rhine!" or "Die Wacht am Rhein!" is one of the most famous patriotic songs in German history. Max Schneckenburger wrote "The Watch on The Rhine" in 1840. It became very popular among Prussian and other German troops duting the Franco Prussian War (1870-71).
Hitler and top NAZIs were deperate to stop the oncoming Allied Armies. Hitler was under no illusions of what would happened if Germany fell. Some of his associates like Himmler and Goering deluded themselves with the idea that negotiation might be possible, but they were well aware of their complicity of the enormous crimes committed in Germany's namre. with massive allied armies poised on the German eastern and western frontiers, Hitler authorized Himler to take two desperate measures, form a hone guard to defend the Reichb (the Volkssturm) and foirm a resistance group (the Wehrwolfs. Hitler had long ago lost confidence in his generals and was rapidly losing confidence in even his closest assoiciates. For both of these actions he turned to Himmler.
Hitler authorized Himmler to form the Volkssturm (November 1944). Boys like the youth here (figure 1) and old men were inducted for military service to shore up Germany's crumbling defenses. Hitler Youth boys, along with old men, were hastily trained, ill-equipped and not terribly well led were the major recruits for the Volkssturm in the closing months of the year. The HJ boys, however, went into battle with a fervor even beyond that of the Waffen SS. Many accounts exist of battle hardeneded Wehrmacht and and SS troops who met these boy soldiers on the way to battle. Their advise was almost often "Its over. Go home!" The boys, however,
armed with a few anti-tank weapons like Panzerfauts and perhaps a machinegun if one could be found, these Hitler Youth schoolboys went into battle. Often they performed amazingly well, even when given hopeless assignments. A book and movie addressing this is The Bridge. Many HJ boys, of course, did not survive. For many, their commiment to Hitler was absolute, even in the boys involved in the hopeless defense of Berlin (April-May 1945).
German propaganda thrumpted new secreat weapons that would defeat the Allies. There actually were such weapons and the Germans began to use them in 1944. It proved, however, too late to affect te course of the War. The V weapons were impressive technical achievements and terribly destructive, boy the V-1s and V-2s. The Allies had delayed these programs by the bombing of Peenemunde, the German missle development program. The first to be used was the V-1 unpiolted jet bombs, an early cruise missle. The British called them buzz bombs because of the destinctive sound of their ram jet engines. The Germans focused on London after the D-Day invasion. The Allies were able to find the launching ramps and attack them by air, but the Germans prefected easy to errect launchers. Many V-1s were also shot down by both ground artillery and Allied fighters. Had the German focused on the V-1, however, tey my hhave been able to disrupt the D-Day landings. After the Normandy breakout the Allies over run the launch sites. It was at this point the Germans began launching the V-2s. They were the first balistic missles ad even more frightening than the V-1s. Because they traveled faster than the speed of sound, there was no advanced warning--just a massive explosion. British press reports helped fool the Germans about targetting. While frightening and desructive, neither weapon seriously affected the Allied war effort. By late 1944, destroying London homes and shops was not going to prevent Allied armies from invading the Reich. The payloads were small and accurate targeting impossible. The jets introduced by the Germans could have had an significant impact on the War, but Hitler's interference both delayed development and prevented efficiet deployment. As a result, fespite massive commitment of resources, the much-vaunted German secreat weapons played no significant impact in the War, not even the air war over the Reich.
Hitler and the Wehrmacht were keenly aware of supply issues. Heavily mecganized American units required more supplies than comprable German units. Fuel was a particular problem because of the consumption by armored and other units. Shipping supplies overvbeaches was a limiting factor. Mulberries at Normandy helped, but the American Mulberry was destroyed in a Channel storm. And even after the Allied advance across France, isolated Gerjan garrisons held out in ports. Antwerp was a paticularly important port and seized in relatively good condition, but German grrisons in estuary forts prevented use from the Allies. The German had not anticipted the American ability to move supplies by truck. (The Wehrmacht primarily used railroads.) The Red Ball Express supplied rapidly advancing American armies. (American trucks supplied the Soviets through Lend Lease also played a major role in the rapid Red Army advance in the East.) This kept the American units supplied, but not sufficently to support a major offensive all along the front line.
Supply problems meant that after the failure of Market Garden, Allied armies did not have the supplies needed for another effort to cross the Rhine. The supply constraints and then the Bulge impeded Allied operations. The Allies finally resolved their supply contraints (February 1945).
Hitler launched the last important German offensive of the War--Operation Norwind (December 16). The Germans for again strike in the Ardennes. The Wehrmacht launched a carefully planned attack against weak Anerican ynits in the Ardennes (December 16, 1944). The offensive was commanded by Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt. The NAZI panzers stormed westward along a 60-mile front stretching from Saint Vith in Belgium south to Echternach in Luxembourg. The German goal was to break through the American lines, sweep through the Ardennes, and seize Antwerp. The port of Antwerp was essential to the Allied
offensive. The major limiting factor to the Allie was supplies and the Allies were beginning to repair the Antwerp port facilities. With Antwerp the British and Canadians in northern Belgium could be cut off and encircled. The Allied thought the Wehrmacht was esentially defeated and incapable of mounting amajor offensive. The Germans were also careful to avoid sending messages bout the offensive electronically. Thus Ultra did not have a clear picture, although Allied commanders were given some warnings. The Germans forced the U.S. 28th Division to retreat from Wiltz (December 19). Eisenhower ordered the 101st Airborne Division to defend the vital crossroads town of Bastonge in Belgium. The German panzers pushed west. German Panther and Tiger tanks in many ways were superior to the American panzers, but they were slower and the Tigers could not cross many Belgian bridges, limited possible crosings. They also guzzled huge
quantities of fuel and fuel ws the principal limiting facor to the Germand offensive. he German plans were contingent on capturing American fuel depots. When the German offensive began, George S. Patton's 3rd Army to the south was about to launch an invasion into the German Saar. In a brilliant movement, within 2 days, he
turned the offensive on a 90° axis and struck northward into the German flank to relieve the 101st Airborne in Bastogne. The 3rd Army liberated Ettlebruck on Christmas Eve and broke through the German lines to relieve Bastogne (December 26). The U.S. 5th Armored Division conducted a surprise night crossing of the River Sure and liberated Diekirch (January 18, 1945). The Germans were pushed back to the positions they held at the start of the battle (January 28). The
Whrmacht offensive in the Ardennes delayed the Allied offensive toward the Rhine by about 6 weeks. The llies i the campaign, however, destroyed virtually all of the Wehrmacht reserves and important panzer units as well as futher depleting the Luftwffe. This meant that the ability of the Germans to defend the Rhine and Berlin
was significantly reduced.
The Rhine was the last important barrier to the Western Allies. The Germans knew that once the Allies crossed the Rhine, the Reich was indefensible. The Western Allies reducded the Bulge. Eisenhower decided that Allied armies should first advance to the Rhine on a broad front before any further efforts were made to cross the River. It was a conservative approach and military experts today debate Eisenhower's broad front tactics. This approach to shorten Allied lines and provided Eisenhower the reserves needed to deal with any further German offensives. It also madev it impossible for the Germans to concentrate forces in any one area to oppose an Allied crossing--this was in fact a comprise aimed at minimizing conflicting views from British and American commanders. Probably Eisenhower's need to maintain the alliance was a factor in his decession to persue a broad front policy. Important elements of the Wehrmacht were destroyed west of the Rhine as Hitler insisted on defending the territory of the Reich. Eisenhower approach was to launch concentric attacks from the north by the British 21st Army Group and the U.S. Ninth Army and from the south by the U.S. First Army. Patton's Third Army would cut straight across central Germany. The Seventh Army would vere southward into Bavaria and Austria. After the Bulge, the Allied needed to take Colmar, a French city. to approach the Rhine in the south. A Franco-American attack was launched (January 20). The Canadian First Army pushed into the area between the Maas and Rhine Rivers. The First Army seized the key Rohr River dams, but were unable to prevent the Germans from floodingb the Rohr Valley. These floods delayed the American Ninth Army's advance. The Ninth Army finally linked up with the Canadians (late February). This cut off Wehrmact units facing the British. The American First Army pressed the drive for the Rhine. The Ninth Army reached the Rhine dear Düsseldorf (March 3), but Montgomery ordered them not to attempt a Rhine crossing. Chalfont, p. 272.]
The First Army took Cologne and then to their surprise captured an intact, but damaged railway bridge at Remagen (March 7). German demolition attempts had failed. American tanks rushed accross the weakened, but intact bridge and seized it.
The Americans and British began to cross the Rhine, a forbidable challenge, but made easier by the capture of the Remagen Bridge. American units poured accross the Rhine over Remagen Bridge as well as pontoon bridges thrown up to support the expanding bridgehead. Other Allied armies were not yet ready, however, to cross the Rhine in force. The Remagen bridgeheadhead forced the German to focus on that area. To prevent the German from concentrating on the Remagen bridgehead, the American Third and Seventh Armies launched coordinated
attacks along the southern reaches of the Rhine. Here the German capability was limited because Allied air superority significantly reduced their mobility. Allied armies by mid-March were ready for the massive assault on he Rhine envisioned by Eisenhower. The Third Army made major assault crossings of the Rhine (March 22 and 25). The British Second Army and the U.S. Ninth Army crossed the Rhine in strength around Rees-Wesel-Dinslaken (March 23). The British crossing under Montgomery, Operation Plunder, was meticulosly planned, some Amerians saw it to a point of absurdity. In part this was a part of Monty's military mindset, but he was also apparently still planning for a drive to Berlin. [Chalfont, p. 269.] Montgomery's crossing proved to be the most cumbersome of all the Allied Rhine crossings. The assault accross the Rhine was supported by Operation Varsity a massive paratroop drop on the German side of the Rhine (March 24). Varsity was the largest parartoop drop in history. The American Seventh Army crossed the Rhine Worms (March 26).
Hitler prepared for the Allied on-slaught by issuing the "Nero Order" (March 19). For Germans that were still under the illusion that Hitler had any real interest in the the welfare of the German people, these actions make clear his total lack of concern. Hitler issued a series of orders designed to destroy the infrasture of Germany, creating a virtual wasteland. The Nero order read, "... all military, transportation, communications, industrial and food-supply facilities, as well as all other resources within the Reich which the enemy might use either immediately or in the forrseeable future for continuing the war, are to be destroyed." The flag order specified that all male inhabitants of a house showing a white flag were to be immediately shot. Hitler ordered his commanders to conduct "... the most fanatical struggle against the now mobil enemy. No consideration for the population can be taken." These ordres contrasted with efforts to save works of art. [Fest, p. 731.]
Once accross the Rhine there were no longer any major gepgraphic barriers to the Allies. The destruction of the German petrochemical plants and Allied air superorityb meant that the remaining German units were largely imobilized. This was exploited by highly mobile American armoured divisions which rapidly moved into the German hearland, surrounding and reducing any pockets of resistance encountered. Montgomery's units in the north drove towaed the major German ports: Bremen, Hamburg, and Luebeck. The Ninth Army moved toward Muenster and Magdeburg. Within weeks the Ruhr, Germany's industrial heartland was surround and huge numbers of Germans soldiers surrendered in the Ruhr pocket. The Ninth and First Army executed a giant pinzer movement which encircled the Ruhr--Germany's industrial heart (April 1). Caught in the Ruhr pocket was the German ?? Army. This was the Wehrmach's last significant force in the west. More than 325,000 German soldiers surrendered. The American First Army then moved further east toward Kassel and Leipzig. Patton's Third Army took Frankfurt and then drove east toward Eisenach and Erfurt. The Third Army then took the shatered city of Dresden and then turned south toward Czechoslovakia and Austria. The Sixth Army Group moved into nto Bavaria, taking Munich and Salzburg. The Allies were concerned that the NAZIs would dry to establish a redoubt in the difficult terraine of the Alps of southern Germany and Austria. The Allies did, not, however, moved toward Berlin. This is a matter of ongoing historical debate. Some say that Stalin hoodwinked Eisenhower. The British concerned with the political connotations were interested in striking at Berlin. Montgomery envisuioned a race accross northern Germmany to Berlin. [Chalfont, p. 271] Eisenhower rejected the drive to Berlin. Eisenhower explained later that he saw it as a waist of Allied manpowe to make a potentially costly drive toward Berlin to take ground that was later to be turn over to the Soviets. (The occupation zones had alreadt been determined by political leaders.) German commanders, however, were later to day that they were anxious to surrender to the Americans and could not understand why the Americans did not come. Instead Eisenhower focused on engaging the remaining remnants of the Wehrmacht not positioned around Berlin.
The Soviets in the east gathered their forces for an all out attack on Berlin. The battle for Berlin fought in April 1945 was one of the most horific engagements of World War II. Stalin ordered the Red Army to take Berlin. After the Americans seized the Remagen Bridge and crossed the Rhine, Stalin ordered the time tble speeded up and at the same time lied to Eisenhowser that he was preparing to take the German capital. Losses on both the German and Russian side were enormous. Russian losses were in part due to the fact that Stalin had
ordered that Berlin be seized bfore the Americans could reach it. Stalin's ordered resulted in a race to Berlin by Marshal Zukov and Koniev, both wanting the victor' laurels. It has always been wonderd why Stalin was so obsessed with Berlin and was willining to sacrifice so many Red Army soldiers to get to Berlin before the Americans. It has always been felt that it was primarily for the political value, to demonstrate the role of the Red Army in defeating the NAZIs. A British histoian argues that there was another important reason. Beria had learned of the American Manhattan Project to build an atomic bomb. Stalin as a rsult ordered a top secret Soviet atomic bomb project--Project Boradino. Located at Berlin was the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, the center of the German atomic project. While the Germans were fa behind the Americans, the Russins obrained agreat deal of valuable information an 3 tons of uranium oxide. [Beavers] The Soviet conquest of Berlin proved to be a nightmare for the surviving women, almost all of whom were raped. It is estimated that 2 million German women were raped by Russians at the end of the War. Perhaps 0.2 million of those rapes took place in Berlin. The rapes included children, nuns, old ladies, and even Russian women brought to Germany to work as slave laborers. The Soviets denied the German civilian reports, but Soviet archieves leave no doubt as to what occurred. [Beavers]
Allied forces racing accross Germany moved toward the Russians pressing west. The Soviets launced their assault on Berlin (April 16). The Allies had fixed stop lines for their military forces along the Elbe and Mulde Rivers. The First Army was the first to meet up with the Soviets near the village of Torgau (April 25). Patton's Third Army moved into easterm Czechoslovakia. The British reached the Baltic, cutting off Denmark and the Jutland Peninsula.
Austria had been incorporated into the Reich by the Anchluss (1938). Eisenhower gave considerable attention to Bavaria and Austria, concerned about reports of a potential NAZI redoubtb in the Alps. The Germans in northern were doing theirbest to get as much of the army as posible back to the Reich. The Germans in Italy finally surrendered (May 2). Advanced units of the U.S. Seventh Army moving eastward through Austria encountered advanced units of the Fifth Army driving north from Italy near the Brenner Pass.
Many believe that after the NAZIs surrendered (May 1945) that all German resistance suddenly ceased. This was not the case. There were NAZI attempts as resistance and the Allies had to take measures to deal with the resistance from various German groups. The NAZIs in the closing months of the War organizated operations like the "Werewolves" to disrupt the occupation. Most of the Werewolves were Hitler Youth boys. There were incidents of Allied soldiers ambushed by Werewolf boys and incidents between Werewolf partisans and Allied forces in the closing days of the War. American soldiers leaflets detailing plans on how to undermine the occupation through sabotage and other measures. The NAZI resistance efforts proved ineffective. Given the level of support that the NAZIs built up, this seem rather surprising. The NAZI resistance effort failed for a variety of resons. One, the destruction as a result of the War changed the mind-set of many Germans. Two, relevations of NAZI war crimes also had a major impact on German thinking. Three, Germany was so devestated that the Germans were dependant on American food aid. Four, the nature of the Western Allied occupation did not generate resistance nd ill will. Five, the nature of Soviet behavior had the result of making the Americans look more like protectors than occupiers.
One paratooper received a letter from his mother in which she wrote, "Son, I want you to be merciful." He recalls thinking that an act of mercy could cost him his life. He was dropped with the 17th Airborn as part of Operation Varsity. Passing a farm house he heard noises from the cellar. Believing that German soldiers were there he prepared to throw a grenade in when he recalled his mother's letter. So instead he called out for the Germans to surender and come out with their hands up. There was silence. He called out again. Then an elderly woman appeared followed by another woman, and then four or five small children. Eventually 14 women and children came out of that cellar. [Kormann]
The United States along with Britain and France Japan oversaw an occupation with changed the nature of West German society. Most Germans readily admitted
their country's responsibility for the War and ther honredous acts of the NAZI regime. The Allies instituted a thorough going denazification process, a process which
continues to this day in Germany. The Allies also attacked the militarism of the old Prussian junker class which the united German state was built around in 1870.
The Allies completely dismantled the NAZI regime and during military occupation reconstructed an entirely new political structure. In some ways the process was simplified by the NAZIs who although opposed to democracy had gone a great way toward the breaking down of class barriers and weakening the power of the Prussian junkers. The Germans were not without a tradition of democracy and parlimentary politics. Given the NAZIs success in dominating the German people and
the thorouness of that domination, it seems perhaps surprising how readily the Germans adopted democracy. Perhaps the totality of the NAZI defeat and the spector of Soviet totalitarianism looming accross the border were major factors. What ever the reasons, the German took to political democracy and free-market economics. A relationship with America was forged in the Berlin Airlift (1948) and four decades of resistance to the Soviers and Warsaw pact. The results by all
practical measures have been an overwealming success. Germany today is one of the most prosperous and democratic societies in the world. Germany unlike Japan was also occupied by the Soviet Union. The Soviet occupation policies in eastern Germany were very different than those persued in the wetern occupation zone. Austria was separated from Germany after the War and occupied by the Soviets and Western Allies.
Beavers, Anthony. The Fall of Berlin 1945.
Chalfont, Alun. Montgomery of Alamein (Atheneum: New York, 1976), 365p.
Fest, Joachim C. Hitler (Vintage Books: New York, 1974), 844p.
Kormann, John. "Mercy is its own reward," The Washington Post, May 28, 2004, p. W11.
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