Figure 1.--We do not have an image of the battle of Megiddo (1479 BC). This ivory piece from the Canaanite royal palace at Megiddo shows the king on his throne before an official/priest, musician and soldier. To the right a charioteer escorts bound prisoners. This piece was dated a about 1200 BC, a couple centuries after the great battle, but it gives us an idea of the weaponery and dress of the period. Meggido was one of the largest and most powerful Canaaite cities at a time when the Jews were moving into the area. The conflict is described in the Bible (books of Judges and Kings).

Many great battles were fought in the ancient world. In most cases the information comes from the victors, thus our information is often biased. Ancient accounts site huge numbers in terms of combatants. These may have been used primarily for literary affect. While these battles occurred in some cases over two millennia ago, they had a powerful impact on shaping our modern world. Quite a bit is know about these battles as a result of a variety of sources. The first battle we know of recorded in history is Megiddo (1479 BC), although details of sparce. The first battle for which relatively detailed informtion exists is Qadesh (1274). Quite a bit of information is available on the battles of the Greek and Roman era. We assume that information on Chinese battles is available, but here we are not yet familiar with the literature.

Early Battles

Battles and conflicts are surely as old as the human species. The battles of pre-history were we assume rather small scale engagements and are by definition unrecorded. With the development of writing recorded history begins. Quite a number of early battles are known to history, but wecknow virtually nothing about them. No details about the battle are exist other than the vistor and vanquished and in some cases the date.

Megiddo (1479 BC)

Some historians point to Megiddo as the first battle recorded in detail by history. Megiddo is one of the most fought over places in the world. It is located in central Palestine on the plain of Esdraelon (Valley of Jezreel). Megiddo'is located on a strategic position commanding the Via Maris, one of the principal trade routes between Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia. Remains at the site have been dated to 3000 BC. It is likely that battles were fought there before the 1479 battle. The first recorded battle in history involved an invasion by Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III. The Pharaoh marched east against the king of Kadesh in Palestine who had organized a revolt against Egypt. This Canaanite coalition had received aid from the Mitanni Empire hich was developing vassal city-states encroaching upon areas previously controlled by Egypt (15th century BC). The king of Kadesh and his allies took up positions in Megiddo, a strong fortress controlling invasion and trade routes north to Lebanon and east to the Euphrates. Megiddo sat on a height where the road emerged from the narrow Aruna Pass into the wide Plain of Esdraelon. Tuthmosis less than a year after becoming Pharaoh moved against the Canaanites. He marched from the border fortress of Sileh along the Sinai road called the "Ways of Horus" to Gaza. This was the main Egyptian strong poinnt in Canaan. Along the way he besiged Jaffa leaving forces there under general Djehuty. His slow march suggest that the Canaanite alliance had considerable support even in the south. Megiddo is also mentioned in the Bible, but centuries later. Babylon was a new empire that arose in western Asia centered on the ancient city with the decline of the Assyrian Empire, The Babylonian Empire gradually expanded and defeated the Assyrians. The Jews under their king Josiah were Assyrian alliess. The Egyptiansdispatched troops to assist the Babylonians, but Josiah and the Jews at the battle of Megiddo blocked the Egyptian column (609). The Babylonians even without Egyptian assistance defeated the Assyrians . Babylonian became the dominant power in western Asia. It was at Meggido that of Sisera's host were defeated (Jud. 5:20). Here Gideon's 300 chosen men surprised and routed them on the northern plain (Jud. 7). Several other battles recorded in the Bible occurred here. Meggido is btter known to Biblical scholars as in the New Testament it is reffered to as Armageddon,. (Saint John took the Hebrew for Mount Megiddo, Har Megiddo.) The book of Revelation profesizes that this will be the location of the last great battle which will be fought by the forces of good and evil. Field Marshall Edmund Allenby in World War II commanded Australian cavalry and Indian infantry up the Aruna Pass to surprise and defeat the Turks occupying the heights of ancient Megiddo.

Qadesh (1274 BC)

Qadesh is a battle of considerable importance because it is the first battle for which historians have a detailed account. It was also a very sizeable battle, as far as we know the greatest battle ever fought up to date. The rising Hittite Empire was contesting the New Kingdon's Egyptian dominance and control of trade routes in what is now Syria. The two armies had the most modern weapons of thee day, swords, axes, and composite (wood, horn, sinew) bows. Melalurgist had developed highly effectibe broze weapons. The Hittites favored straight swords, the Egyptians curved swords. Chariots were the mainstay of Middle Eastern armies at the time. Wall cavings show charioys being mass produced. Each side had destinctive chariots. The three-man Hittite chariots were strnger, but slower and less manuverable. The two-men Egptian chasriots were gaster and more maneuerable. Both side deployed fleets of chariots. And Qadesh was one of the greatest chariot battles of all time. Pharoah Ramesses II rose to the throne upon the death of his father Seti I (1279 BC). Ramses was a valiant war commander. He had campaigbed as crown prince with his father in Syria. He was determined to be a great pharaoh. Qadesh was a city strategically located along important trade routes on the border between the Hittite Empire and Egypt. Seti had conquered Qadesh, but it was later lost to the Hittlies. Ramses was determined to retake the city and ammassed an army of four corps, each with about 5,000 men. Ramses made no secret of his plans so the Hittite king, Muwatallish, gathered an even larger army to meet him. Muwatallish had 2,500 chariots and 40,000 infantry. Both armies fought with spears, swords, and bows. The Iron Age had begun, but both armies fought with mostly bronze weapons. Qadesh involved a 1,000 mile march of about a month for the Egyptians. Ramesses II moved north with the lead Amun corps. The other three corps were strung out on the desert behind him. As Ramses neared Qadesh, Bedouins in the service of the Hittites mislead him about the location of the Hittite army. He thus moves forward toward the city without waiting for the rest of his army. It was a terrible mistake. Ramses soon found himself northwest of Qadesh facing the entire Hittite army with only one of his corps. The Hittites were in battle order prepared to attack. Ramses sent messenger to the closest corps--the Re Corps. They rushed forward to join the Pharoah, but Muwatallish had anticipated this move and attacked with his chariots and desimate the Re corps infantry. The Re corps chariots who were moving ahead of the infantry joined the pharoah and warned him that the Hittites were attacking. The Hittite chariots after destrouing the Re Corps, turned north and attacked Ramesses' camp. Here accounts vary. Some maintain that the Amun corps infantry panicked and ran. Other sources say that Amun bowmen inflicted heavily casualties. The Hittite attack also appears to have been broken up by the tents and baggage in Ramses camp. They also appear to have been detracted by booty. Ramses although heavily outnumbered decided to use his numerically inferior chariot force to attack. Muwatallish seeing his first attack had failed, commited the rest of his chariot force. Just as the two forces are about to clash. the Ne'arin, the elite troops that had taken the coatal road arrive on the battlefield and caught the Hittites by surprise. Large numbers of Hittite soldiers were killed and their army had to withdraw north of the Orontes River. The huge Hittite infantry force which outnumered the Egyptians more than two to one was never committed to the battle. With his chariot force largely destoyed, Muwatallish decided to break off combat. The two largely undefeated forced faced each other accross the Orontes River, but did not resume combat. Ramses returned to Egypt and declared what seems to have been a stand off a great victory and depictions of that victory were emblazoned on the temples and palaces he had built. Later a peace treaty was negotiated with the Hittites to present a united front against the Asyrians. Surviving stone copies have been found in both Egypt and Turkey. Many historians consider this to be the oldest recorded peace treaty in history. Ramses married two Hittite princes. The reason we know about this battle is that it was described and depicted in great detail in monuments to Ramses, especially his great temple, the Ramsesium, in Luxor. The battle takes on even greater importance when it is considered that if Ramses had lost, the Hittites would have extended their empire south into Syria and Palestine and threatened Egypt itself. This means that the Jews would have come under Hittite influence. Important parts of the Bible concern the relatiinship between the Jews and Egypt. Given the influence of te Jews on Western civikization and Christanity, this devlopment could have had very significant consequences.

Marathon (490 BC)

It might be said that Western civilization was born on the dusty plains of Marathon. Athens had overthrown their brutal tyrant Hippias whose fmily had attempted to return a monarchy to Athens (510 BC). Hippias fled to Persia. Athens gradually developed a democratic system of government. Athens and Ereteria incouraged the Ionian Greek city states in Anatolia to revolt from the Persian Empire. Perian Emperor Darius the Great suppressed the revolt (494 BC). He pledged to reek his revenge on the Greeks. The first Persian invasion fleet was foiled by a storm (492 BC). Darius sent another massive invasion force of 600 ships and a huge arny under Dacious? to pujnish the Athenians and reinstall the deposed tyrant Hippias. It was a foregone conclussion that the massive Persian Empire could easily defeat and humiliate Athens and its allies. The Persians suceeded in destroying Eriteria (490 BC) and then moved on to attack Athens. Hippias helped select Marathon as the best place to land. Marathon proved to be the decisive battle of the first Persian War. The Persians landed on the plain of Marathon. It was a broad plain, perfectly suited for deplying a large military force. Athens appealed for Spartan support, but the Spartans in the middle of a relgious festival, refused to immediately come to Athen's aid. They arrived a day after the battle was fought. The modern marathon race is named after a run made by an Athenian to request Spartan aid. Even without the vaunted Spartan infantry, the Athenian infantry defeated the immense Persian army. The Athenian commander was Miltiades. Historians know very little about him. His Athenian force augmented with troops from it allies, especially Plataea faced a much larger Persian force. The Greek forced was based on the armoured infantrymen--the hopplites. They faced a Persian force twice as large, but much more varied--drawn from all over the vast Persian Empire. The Persians were led by Artaphernes, son of a satrap of Sardis, and Datis, a Median admiral. The Greeks waited on the hills around Marathon, hoping for the Spartans to arrive. The Persians waited 4 days and then seized upon a plan. They divided their force. Datis reembarked the calvary and some of the infantry to attack undefended Athens by sea. Miltiades decided to seize the oportunity and attack the Persians forece remaining at Marathon led by Artaphernes while his force was weakened and without their calvary. Miltiades extended his battle line by weakening the center, but keeping the flanks strong. The well armoured and drilled hopplites smashed the less heavily armoured Greeks. As the Greek flaks closed in on the Persians, they finally broke fleeing for their ships. It is at this time that large numbers of Persians were killed. Miltiades then rushed his army back to Athens. When Datis arrived off Athens with his ships, he was suprised to see the Athenian army awaiting him. He decided against invasion and returned to Persia.

Salamis (480 BC)

Darius vowed revenge for his defeat at Marathon. This was the third campaign of the Persian Wars. Darius planned another massive campaign, but died before the invasion could be launched. It was his son Xerxes who deployed a huge army of about 250,000 men and a naval force to support it. The goal was to conquer all of Greece and add it to the vast Persian Empire. Xerexes' army marched along the coast taking city after city in northern Greece while the fleet kept his army supplied. A force of Greek city states met the Persian army at Thermopylae (480 BC), a pass between Mt. Oeta and swamps along the shore of the Malic Gulf. The made their stand at Thermopylae because it was a mountain pass leading into Greece. Not only was it a key position, it meant that Xeres could not emply his massive army to full affect. His soldiers were not heavily armored like the Greeks. The were equipped and trained to fight battle of movement on the vast open plains of Asia as it was known then. This time the Spartans were involved. They had been embarassed by their failure to participate in the battle at Marathon. The small Spartan force of about 300 Hoplites under Leonidas delayed a massive Persian Army at Thermopylae. The Greeks inlicted monting casualties as the Persians charged the Greek phlankes time after time. Even the Persian Imprtals could not break through the heavily armored Greeks. A traitor showed the Persians how to outflank the Greeks. The main Greek army withdrew, but the Spartans stood and were killed to a man. The Persians suffered heavy losses, but given the size of the army not serious. It did affect the morale of the Persian army and gave heart to the Greek city states resisting the Persians. Xerxes was, however, only delayed at Thermopylae. The Persians marched on to Athens. The Athenian commander Themistocles, however, withdrew from the city and Xerxes found an abandoned city. The Persian fleet was destroyed at the decisive battle of Salmis (480 BC). The naval victory was especially important. Without the navy, the huge Persian army could not be supplied. Greece was exceedingly mountaneous. War with the Greeks was only practical for the Persians by transporting and supplying its large army by sea. Without the fleet, the Persian Army was cut off from supplies. Xerxes returned to Persia. The Persian Army was left under the command of Mardonius. The next year the Greeks comanded by the Spartan general Pausanias and the Athenian general Aristides destroyed that army at Plataea (479 BC). The Athenian fleet also defeated another Persian naval force at Mycale. Conflict between the Persians and Greeks continued for years, but never on the same scale. The Greeks had maintained their freedom and what followed was one of the greatest cultural flowering in history--essentially the birth of Western civilization.

Gaugamela (331 BC)

Gaugamela was Alexander's greatest victory. It was at Gaugamela that the fate of the vast Persian Empire was decided. Alexander the Great at Gaugamela near Arbela (modern Erbil) defeated a huge army ammassed by Persian Emperor Darius III. This was a massive battle involving some 300,000 men. The Persians outnumbered Alexander 5 to 1. Alexander's generals upon learning of the size of Darius' army advised Alexander to attack at night least his army be intiminated. Alexander is famously said to have replied, "I will not steal my victory." He aganoized over the tactics for the battle, but once he had settled on his plan, fell into as deep sleep. He had to be awakened in the morning. Darius had carefully chosen the battlefield. He had learned from his previous defeats where the terraine had prevented him from deploying his larger forces to full effect. Gaugamela was flat plane where his massive army would have space to manuever. He even prepared the ground for his vaunted chariots. Alexander had prepared for the chariots. His Phalanx of spearmen opened providing channels and in those channels archers killed the charioteers. Ranks of chavalry and infantry engaged each other. Then Alexander spotted a weak point in the Persian. He focused his attack on that one point. It was the only place on the battlefield that Alexander had a numerical advantage. As Alexander began to break through Darius spread. Persian cavalrymen were about to break Alexander left, but a Phalank held in reserve stopped them. The Persians seeing Darioius fleeing fell back and Alexander was able to crush a hugely superior Persian force.

Ipsus (301 BC)

The vast Persian Empire was destroyed by Alexander. After Alexander's death (323 BC), his generals (the Diadochi) divided his emppire. Palestine was on a fault line between rival Greek kingdoms. Ptolemy invaded Palestine (320). The Battle of Ipsus fought to the north of Palestine was a major encounter between the the Diadochi settling the fate of Alexander's empire. (301 BC). Ipsus was a small village in Phrygia. Antigonus I Monophthalmus and his son Demetrius I of Macedon fought a coalition of three other companions of Alexander: Cassander (Macedon), Lysimachus (Thrace), and Seleucus I Nicator (Babylonia and Persia). This was the last effort to unite Alexander's empire. Antigonus had been the only general able to consistently defeat the other Successors. His death meant the end of Alexander's empire. Ptolemy held Egypt, Seleucus receiving the bulk of Antigonus' lands in the east and eastern Asia Minor, and Lysimachus receiving the remainder of Asia Minor. Seleucus would eventually defeat Cassander and Lysimachus (281 BC), but died shortly afterward. This began a period of conflict between the Ptolemic and Seleculid empires

Cannae (216 BC)

Carthage and Rome in the 3rd century BC struggle for dominance in the Mediterrean in the epic Punic Wars. Hannibal crossed the Alps and fought battles with small Roman forces. The battle of Cannae was one of the greatest battles fought in the ancient world. Rome decided to amass a huge army to confront Hannibal and defeat Rome once and for all. The two armies met near Apulia in southern Italy. Rome had eight legions, each with more than 5,000 men and a total force of 70,000. Rome had two commanders, Psaulis and Varo. Hanibal had an army composed of men from many different differeht countries: Libyan spearmen, Nubian calavalrymen, Spainards, and Gauls (Celts). The Romans had a larger army, but Hannibal had an advantage in calvary--an advantage on the flat plain of Cannae. The Roman legions advanced and struck at Hannibal's center. With their superior nymbers, the Roman's inflicted considerable danage on the weaker Carthagenian infantry force. Hannibul's cresent formation succeded in surrounding the Romans. The superior Carthegian calvary force completed the encirclement. It is at this stage that the Romans panic. More than 50,000 Roman soldiers were killed--the worst defeat ever suffered by Rome. Hannibal genius was envircking a numerically superior Roman force. Hannibal refused, however, to msarch on Rome. Historians argue as to wether he had the force to take Rome. Rather Hannibal and his army fought endless battles with the Romans in Italy for 14 years. Divisions in Cartheginian society pevented the disparch of adequate supplies and reinforcements. Finally he was recalled to defend Carthage itself.

Cynoscephalae (197 BC)

Cynoscephalae are two hills in Thessaly (northern Greece). A great victory was gained there by Pelopidas (364 BC). Another major battle was fought there by the Romans under Flamininus and the Madecodians under Philip V. Philip had sided with the Cartheginians in the Punic Wars and used the opportunity to expand his territory south. Rome occupied with Hannibal did not have the capability to confront Philip. Only after Rome's victory over Carthage and Hannibal in the Second Punic War (218-201 BC) was Rome able to confront Macedonia. At the times the Greek city states, the center of Western civilization, were still independent. Even Alexander had not totally reduced the city states. Philip V of Macedon was threatening Athens and other Greek city states. Philip's push south brought appeals to Rome for assistance. The Greeks preferred subservience to the immediate threat than the dangers of dominance from more distant Rome. Rome was willing to interevene. The result was one of the great battles of history, the battle of Cynoscephalius (197 BC). The battle in many ways determined the subsequent history of the Mediterranean. It also was a major turning point in how wars were fought.

Siler River (71 BC)

A Roman slave from Dalmatia launched a slave revolt (73 BC). Spatacus was forced to train as a gladiator, but convinced other slaves at the gladiatorial school in Capua to revolt rather than fight as gladiators. Thousands of slaves ran away to join him. His revolt proved to be the last, but most important of the Servile Wars. Rome not appreciating the danger sent small, inexperienced forces to supress the slaves. The more important Roman armies were stationed on the frontiers of the Republic. After a series of battles throughout the Italian peninsula, the Roman general Crassus pinned him in the toe of Italy and built a wall to keep him there, hoping to starve him army. Spartacus manages to break out, but with only a part of his army. Spatacus took his army north again and Crassus pursued him. Again the Gauls and Germans separated from he main army and were almost defeated by Crassus until Spartacus came to their rescue. Spartacus achieved one more minor victory against part of Crassus' forces. Then Spartucus turned on Crassus' pursuing legions. Spartacus fought his last battle near the headwaters of the Siler river in southern Italy. Here the more disciplined Roman legions destroyed the depleted slave army. Spartacus appears to have been killed in the battle, but his body was never found among the huge number of corpses. Crassus reportedly crucified 6,000 of the priosoners along the Appian Way from Capua to Rome. Pompey leading another army converging on Spartacus' force is believed to have killed another 5,000 slaves.

Carrhae (53 BC)

Pompey had negotiated a treaty with the Parthinians about 73 BC. The treaty set the boundary of Parthia at the Wadi Balik. Crassus was the richest man in Rome, but despite his success against Spartacus did not have the military reputation he craved. He decided to use his position as proconsul to launch an invasion of Parthia with which Rome had a treaty of peace. Victory here would extend the boundaries of Rome away frm the Mediterrean accross western Asia to the border of India. It would in effect recreated Alexander's empire and brought great wealth and the military laurels so important for political power to Crassus. Victory against Parthia in the east would have outshown even Ceasar's spectacular victories in Gaul. Crassus marched directly through Mesopotamia hoping to seize Seleucia and Parthian capital of Ctesiphon (54 BC). Crassus followed the Euphrates River. He crossed into Parthian territory at Zeugma. Crassus' son Publius who had been with Ceasar in Gaul joined his father. Crassus' leiutenant Cassius advised him to rest the army and to continue the attack along the Euphrates where food and water was plentiful. Crassus was fooled into lauching an attack across the desert in the hope of closing with the Parthians. Crassus' exhausted army ecountered the Parthians about 20 miles south of Carrhae (June 53 BC). Crassus was surprised. He encountered the Parthians much sooner than he anticipated and they were not retreating. What followed was one of the greatest disasters in Roman military history.

Pharsala (48 BC)

Rome in the final years of the Republic was dominated by the Trimumverate (Ceasar, Crasus, and Pompey). Crassus' death at Carrhae (53 BC) led to a showdown between Ceasar and Pompey as to who would control Rome. Ceasar who for years had fought the Gauls moved south into Italy. The decisive step was crossing the River Rubicon--a phrase that is now used in all westen languages. This bold step violated Roman law prohibiting generals from bringing their armies into Itay. It was in effect the end of the Roman Republic. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey) was at the time Rome's most lauded military hero. As Ceasar approached Rome, Pompey fled and in southern Italy embarked for Macedonia where he was popular. Pompey ammassed a large army. Ceasar without a navy could not follow. It took a year to move his smaller, but battke hardened army north into Macedonia to confront Pompey. The two armies met at Pharsala in Thessaly. The battle of Pharsala ocuured during the Summer (August 9, 48 BC). Ceasar was outnumbered by more than two to one. Pompey's army represented the forces loyal to the Republic. Caesar defeated Pompey's republican forces in a stunning victory. Caesar later claimed to have suffered only 200 men killed while killing 15,000 of Pompey's me. This seems an exageration, but even other sources report 6,000 killed. After his left flank in routed, Pompey flees the battlefield. He sails to Alexandria where one of his own men kill him. Pompey's flight to egypt brought Ceasar there as well at the fatefull encounter with Cleopatra.

Actium (31 BC)

The naval battle of Actium decided the last stage of the civil wars developing in Rome during the final years of the Republic. The final stage of the civil war followed the assasination of Julius Ceasar. Octavian (Ceasar's nephew) and Mark Anthony (Ceasar's most trusted leutenit) combined forces to track down the conspirators. Then the two fell out in the final episode od the civil war. The more poltically asstute Octavian defeated the forces of Mark Anthony and Ckeopsatra. This lead to a long era of stability in which Octavian ruled as Agustus Ceaser and created the institutions of the Roman Empire. The battle also determined the nature of the Roman Empire. Had Anthony and Cleopstra won there would have been a far more important Eastern influence.

Teutoberg Forrest / Teutoberger Wald (9 AD)

Here Arminius over the Roman legions under Varus. A vibrant united Europe is a development that has come about in our post-World War II. Many remember the Cold War which divided Europe after World War II. In fact, there have been many political and cultural fissures that have divide Europe for millenia. Perhaps the most significant is the cultural divide between the Latin West and the Germanic East. That division came about as a result of a battle little-known outside Germany, but arguably is one of the most significant in all of European history. A youthful German tribal leader, Arminius, smashed three entire Roman Legions trying to subdue Germanic tribes east of the Rhine in the Teutonburg Forest. While Varus failed to unite the Germans, his brilliant military victory established the Rhine as the border between the civilized Roman Empire and the barberous Germanic tribes. The Rhine, a geographic barrier of emense proprtions, came to be a major cultural divide which played out in our modern age as the clash between France and Germany.

Adrianople (378 AD)

Adrianople was a town in Thrace. Here a large Visogothic army confronted a Roman army under the Emperor Valens. The Visigoths pressured by the Huns had crossed the Danube seeking saftey. Other barbarian tribes poured into the Empire, including the Ostrogoths and the non-Germanic Alans. The eastern Emperor Valens see the possibility of having them settle as farmers and even using them in Roman armies. The Visigoths were brutally dealt with by provincial officials. Some are forced to sell their children into slavery. After a trecerous effort to kill Viigothic leaders, the surviving Visigothic leaders prepare to fight. Visigothic armies finally moved against the Romans. The Western Emperor Gratian achieves some battlefield successes. Vallens decided to move against the Visigoths. Gracian advises him to wait until they can join forces. Visigothic attacks on the fortified city of Adrianople failed. Valens received eronious reports concerning the size of the Visigothic force. Thinking that he could defeat the Visigothic force, he decided to ignore Gracians advise and moved against the Visigoths, leaving the saftey of Adrianople. He ignored pleas from the western emperor Grecian? to wait until reinforcements could arrive. Vithern launches a calvary attack. After a long march the Romans meet the Visigithic army commanded by Fritigern. After battles with the far more numerous Visigothic calvalry, much of the Roman calvary retreats. Fritigern gradually surrounds Valens' army. The Romans shaken by the calvary attack are desimated by the Visuigithic attack. Anout two-thirds of the Roman army including Valens are killed. The battle was significant because it demonstrated that the Goths could defeat a Roman army. It also showed that the Eastern and Western Empires would or could not work together. The battle also demonstrated the importance of heavy calvlry over infantry, a shift which destnguishes ancient from medival warfare.

Châlons (451 AD)

The battle of Châlons is commonly seen variously as either the last battle of the ancient world or the first battle of the medieval Europe. The Western Empire was a shstill existed in name, but was a shadow of its formerself. The Western Emperor controlled only Italy and claimed control over Gaul (France) and Spain which were in fact controlled by warloards who challenged Roman forces. Gaul was only nomimally a part of the Western Empire in the mid-5th century. The Visagoths were contending with the Romans for control of Gaul. The Huns had grown to be a huge challenge to both the Eastern and Western Empire. Rome had used the Huns as mercinaries to hold the Visagoths in check. The Roman commander in Gaul, Aëtius, was a boyhood friend of Atilla the Hun. Atilla comanded the most powerful military force in Europe. Atilla and the Huns practiced war with a vebgence, devestating the lands they invaded. He was known as the Scourge of God in the now Chritianized Roman Empire. Aëtius was the only Roman commander with a creditable force. Having drained the Eastern Empire trasury and plundered much of its European possesions, Atilla determined that the rewards of plunder lay in the West. It is at this time that a daughter of the Western Emperor send Atilla her ring. Demanding a dowery of half of the Empire, Atilla moved west. The havoc and devastation he wrought in Gaul was passed down in Medieval folklore. It was this devestation that enabled Aëtius to gain allies among the Gauls and Germanic tribes. (In one of the curious turns of history, Aëtius and Atila were boyhood friends. Aëtius had been sent as a boy to the Huns as a hostage to ensure good relations. It was there he met the young Atila and became friends with him.) Atilla in his army were Ostrogoths and other Germanic warriors (including Burgundians and Alans) who had lived on the Germanic side of the frontier with Gaul. The Franks were split between pro- and anti-Roman factions. Aëtius succeeded in assembling a confederacy to confront the huge Hunnic army. Aëtius' army was composed of Franks, Visigoths (led by Theodoric), and his own Romano-Germanic army. Atilla had ravaged large areas of Gaul and invested Orleans. The city was about to surrender when Aëtius and Theodoric arrived to confront Atilla. The two armies met on the Catalaunian Fields, near Châlons-sur-Marne in the heart of what is now the champagne district. (A famous World War I battle was also fought on the Marne.) It was one of the great battles and certainly most bloody of the late Roman/early Medieval era. No one knows precisely the size of the two forces. Surviving accounts suggest huge numbers, but were probably more for literary account than reasonable estimates. It was also one of the rare occassions when Atilla suffered defeat (254 AD). Atilla had a larger army and simply through it in a massed calvary charge at the center of the challenging force. Aëtius was hard pressed, but Theodoric pressed on one flank and Aëtius on the other other. The huge Hunic army was thus denied manuerability--its greatest strength. Figting continued after nightfall with huge losses. Theodric was knocked from his horse and trampled, but under his son Thorasman, the Visagoths continued the fight. Thorasman was almost killed himself. The Huns suffered huge losses. Aëtius emerged victorious, but did not destroy Attila and his army. He appears to have decided not to press the attack, apparently thinking that his his Visigothic allies would desert his coalition and seize control of Gaul if the Hunnic threat was eliminated. His army had suffered massive losses as well. Atilla invaded Italt the next year. He ravaged norther Italy but was persuaded to turn back by the pope. One factor was the huge losses suffered at Châlons, he no longer had the power that he once possessed and the Eastern Empire threatened the Hunnic homelands.

Created: 7:41 PM 7/12/2004
Last updated: 3:00 AM 7/17/2007