Figure 1.--This is a romantasized view of Louis XVI bidding farewell to his family in January 1793, the evening before he was executed by the Guillotine. Note his son, the illfated, Lous XVII at the right. |
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The French Revolution was a dramatic break with Europe's feudal past. As such it is the most important event in modern European history. The rise of the bourgeoisie in France signaled the deathnell for Ancien Regime, the old aristocracy. Unlike Britain and the new United States, the economically important bourgeoisie was denied any political role and support of the increasingly frivolous aristocracy imposed a great economic cost on France. Not only was the bourgeoisie denied any real political role, but the lower classess lived in increasingly deprived conditions, a situation intensified by the bankruptsy of the royal government. The increasing oposition to France's virtually feudal government suddenly ignited during a 1789 riot that exploded into open revolt. The Revolution was opposed by the other counties of Europe--all monarchies. A new Republic toppled the monarchy. A series of sporadically violent and radical civilian administrations rued France. The height of violence was reached in the "The Great Terror." King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antointte to the horror of Europe were guiotined. The execution of the King and Queen made any accomodaton with the Republic impossible. Foreign armies coverged on Paris again, but were defeated by Rpublican forces under the new tri-color flag. Eventually a remarkably capable and carismatic genneral seized control of the Revolutionary armies and the Republic merged into the new French Empire. The disorders and violence in France were to engulf all Europe in war, first with the new French Republic and then with Napoleon's Empire. The resulting wars and campaigns were the most significant in Europe until World War I (1914-18). The French Revolution have profound political, social, and economic influences. The dress of aristicracy came into question. Powdered wigs disappeared very quickly. Knee breeches endured longer as they were also worn by the bourgeoisie. The working class had already begun wearing long trousers. It was boys from well to do families that first began wearing long pants as part of a dress costume--usually a skeleton suit. I'm not sure why boys were the first to adapt this style.
The rise of the bourgeoisie in France signaled the deathnell for Ancien Regime, the old aristocracy. Unlike Britain and the new United States, the economiclly important bourgeoisie was denied any political role. There was no parliament asin Britain. Louis XIV had fashioned a centalized, absolutist state and is famous for his statement, "I am the state." This absolutist state was continued by Louis XVI, but he had inherited a bankrupt state because of war with Britain and support of the American Revolution. Support of the increasingly frivolous aristocracy also imposed a great economic cost on France. Not only was the bourgeoisie denied any real political role, but the lower classess lived in increasingly deprived conditions, a situation intensified by the bankruptsy of the royal government.
The Enlightenment along with the Renaisance and Reformation was a key step in the formation of the Western mind. Many of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers were French, but the Enlightenment was a movement which over time affected all of Europe to varying degrees. America was also affected by the Enlightenment, but the American exoerience was different, in part because of the Great Awakening. The Enlightenment is also termed the Age of Reason. Authors define it differently and there were many different aspects, but the Enlightenment at it heart was a basic turn in the Western mindset. The West for more than a milenium had been dominated by religion, often descrined as faith. Even the Reformation had not changed this. In fact the Protestants were often more consumed with faith and theological questions than the Roman church. With the Enlightenment, primacy was given to reason. Intelectuals began to think that objective truth about life and the universe could be achieved through rational thought. The advances achieved in physics, led by Sir Issac Newton in Britain, had a profound impact on European intellectuals. Enlightenment writers begasn to think that the same kind of systematic thinking could be used to understand and improve areas of human activity as well. A whole new system of aesthetics, ethics, government, and logic was developed based on reason. The Enligtenment was an era of great optimism. Enlightenment thinks were convinced that reason could dramatically improve society. They were not openly athiestic, but they were highly critical of religion which they often equated with irrationality and superstition. The Enlightement also attacked political tyranny. The intelectual ferment of the Enlightenment led to the American and subsequent Latin American revolutions as well as the French Revolution which had a much more pronounced impact on Europe. the Enlightenment prepared the foundation for both classical liberalism and capitalism. There were comparable movements in music (high baroque and classical) and art (neo-classical).
Louis succeeded to the throne on May 10, 1774 after his grandfather's, Louis XV, death. Louis died an unpopular king. His grandson Louis XIV was still young and had great trepedation about reigning. At the time, he was still immature, lacking in self-confidence, and because of a physical defect (later remedied by an operation) frigid in his relations with his young wife. His wife was Marie Antoinette, a very young Austrian Arch-Duchess (princess). The French Bourbons and SAustrian Hapsburgs were the two most prestigious royal houses in Europe. The marriage represented a new alliance between these major European powers which had for years been fighting each other. which Although well-disposed toward his subjects and interested in foreign policy, Louis had not sufficient strength of character or power of decision to combat the court factions or give support to reforming ministers. His poor education made him suspectable to the intrigues of schemin advisers. Louis did not have the strength of character or foresight to persue needed reforms when possible or to deal with the Revolution when it occurred. His undoing of the judicial reforms of his grandfather cost him presige, and his reign was marked by the increasing strength of the aristocrats, who opposed most economic and administrative reforms.
Historians debate the causes of the revolution. Most agree as to the forces that led to the Revolution, but disagree as to the relative importance. The years leading up to Revolution was an era pf political, economic, and political turfmoil. The finances of France were shatered by the runious Seven Years War in which France under Louis XV fought both Prussia and Britain. As a result of the war France lost both India and Canada and was left with only a few Caribbean islands as an overseas empire. France the once dominant European power is humbled. Partially as a result, the new king Louis XVI decided to aid the American colonists against Britain. French support is critical for the success of the American Revolution it also proves disastrous for the French monarchy. The loans and cost of the war bankrupted the royal government. The Franch population grew substantially during the 18th century, but French law and the economic system kept wealth and property essentially in the hands of the nobility. Some authors stress the oppresive character of the royal government as a factor. Economic conditions seem to have been even more important. Poverty grew and the bankruptsy of the monarchy aggrevated the situtation. Another factor was the rising economic importance of the bourgeoisie and their desire for political power. Another important factor was the Enligtenment which had raised dangerous new ideas about liberty and equiality. The Enlightenment called into question the underlying principle of the fedual system that still dominated Europe that hierarchy an inherited social status was the natural state of affairs endorsed by God through the Church. Had the economy been stronger and had the peasantry and urban poor not been experiencing such economic privations the debaztes of the Enligtenment might have remained in the salons of Paris. The increasing poverty of the people led many to question the validity of the monarchy, especially an absolute monarchy. Many came to see the absolute monarchy as absolutely responsibe for the situation in France.
France experienced another poor harvest (1788). Bread prices began to rise. The poor in France essentially lived on bread. The poor already living on the edge or pushed toward starvation. The Winter of 1788-89 was one of the worst on record creating even more misery. Thus public discontent grew fed by rumors of the royal court extravegences, especially the Queens excesses. Louis tinked with fiscal reforms, but as the clergy and aristocracy did not pay taxes this meant higher taxes on the already burdened people. Food shortages occured. Disorders occur in Paris and other cities. There are riots with mobs breaking into bakeries and other stores.
Louis appointed Necker finance minister. It is a popular choice as he has written on the need to reform. Even Necker is unable to resolve the problem of the crushing defecit. Facing bankruptcy of the royal treasury, bankers insist Louis summon the Estates General, a body that could approve new taxes. French kings had not convened the Estates General for 175 years. Louis finally complied and summoned the Estates General. The Estates General met at Versailles (May 5). They were was divided into three chambers representing respectively the aristocracy, the clergy, and the commoners. The Third Estate were well-to-do commoners, people of property or position mainly, but commoners all the same, and as such, people without significant political rights. But the time was ripe for change and events moved swiftly. Many in the Third Estate resented the fact that they represented 97 percent of the population, but were dominated by the other two estates. From the beginning the Third Estate calls for sweeping reforms in French society and demand that the clergy and aristocracy begin paying taxes. They are join by memnembers of the junior clergy and some aristocrats. The First and Second Estates, however, block action.
Louis after 6 weeks of deadlock becomes concerned about the radical demands of the Third Estate and decided to close the Estates General and send the deputies home. The Deputies arrive and find the doors locked. They refuse, however, to close the session and go home. They retire to the Tennis Court and take an oath to not close the session without a new constitution (June 17). The Third Estate declares itself a new National Assembly. Louis hesitates to take action against them.
Rumors began to circulate in Paris that Louis was moving troops to suppress the National Assembly and bring order to Paris. He reportedly was concentrating 30,000 troops around the city. The people of Paris to defend themselves establish a Parisian city goverment--the Commune. They form a National Guard. They raid Paris armories for weapons, but lack gun powder. Paris is further incensed when Louis dismisses Necker. It is at this time Paris mobs began to descend on the Bastille where stores of gun powder are known to exist. The Bastille was a forbidding medievl fortress located at the center of Paris. It was seen as a symbol of royal despotism. The Bastille towered over the srounding area. Parisians looked on the Bastille with forboding. Terrible tortures were thought to take plsce there. A mob attacks the Bastille and overwealmed the small guard (July 14). The mob expected to free prisoners, but there were none. The governor of the Bastille was dragged through the streets and eventually killed. It is at this time that the red, white, and blue cockade appears which becomes the tri-color flag. Red and blue are the colors of Paris. White represents the Bourbons. The people of Paris proceed to demolish the Bastille by hand.
The National Assemby did not denounce the violence and bloodshed in Paris. The National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man, one of the great documehts of Western Civilization. The Declaration abolished class detinctions and asserts soverignity for the people. This was in essence a break with the Monarchy. The monarchy in fact was not mentioned. Thus the Natioanal Assembly with the Declaration executed a coup, seizing power from the King. France at this time becomes a constitutional monarchy. The National Assembly aserts a new system of justice under responsible laws. They proceeded to take a series if ground breaking actions. The Assembly established press freedom. They abolished feudal privliges (August 4).
With increased press freedom, a fiery newspaper editor Jean Paul Marat becomes influential in Paris,. Marat was a former dictor. He failed at most attemps to ldearn a living. He descended into poverty and actualy lived for a time in the Paris sewer. There he contracts a serious skin disease and has to soak in medencinal baths. He finds his calling in life, writing hate filled editorials. His paper The People's Friend becomes very popular in Paris. It is essentially an outlet for Marat's venim. Parisian are preoared to believe any thing Maray writes about ther monarchy. He writes about plots against the Revolution with a paranoid zeal. And his percription for the threats to the Revolution is blood.
Marat continues to write inflamatory articles castigating the mponarchy and accusing the King and Queen of intrigues against the Revolution. One articles accuses the King and Queen of dancing on the tri-color at a sumtuous court affair. The next day a mob led by the formidable Parisian fish women descend on Versailles (October 5). Louis fearful of the gathering mob signs the Declaration of the Rights of Man. The mob demans that the royal family accompany them back to Paris. He hesitates. Reactinhg furiously, the mob tear through the palace and almost kill the Queen. They do kill the palace guards and with the guards' heads on pikes esort the royal family pack to Paris. They are installed in the Tuileries Palace. But in Paris they are essentially the prisoners of the Paris mob and the National Assembly.
The King When the Revolution broke out, allowed himself to be controlled by reactionary court factions into defending the privileges of the nobles and clergy, and continued to believe that the Revolution would burn itself out. Unfortunately for Louis, it only grew in strength. The Revolutionaries began to fear
the King and his family would attempt to escape Paris. Louis tried to leave the Tuileries for Saint-Cloud (Easter 1791). He wanted avail himself of a nonjuring priest (1791). He was unacke to do so.
The émigrés reached the conclusiin that without the nobility dominated offucer corps that the Revolution did not have a creditable army. Representatives of the surrounding countries (Austria, Switzerland, Sardinia, and Spain) met at Mantua (May 20, 1791). They secretly committed to invading France and restoring King Louis to power. king Louis rejected the plan. Instead he supported General Bouillé, who condemned both the emigrees and the Assembly. He promised the King refuge and support in his camp at Montmedy. The King with his family fled the Tuileries (June 20, 1791). A carriage took them on the road to Châlons in an effort to reach Montmedy. When his absence was noted, the Assembly acted decisively. They seized executive power and obtaining oaths from loyal troops. King Louis refused to desguise himself and was recognised and arrested at Varennes l(June 21). He and the royal family was escorted back to Paris under close guard.
Pétion, Latour-Maubourg, and Barnave, representing the Assembly met the disheartened royal family and escort at Epernay. Barnave became a counsellor and supporter of the royal family. Upon entering Paris, the crowd was generally silent. The Assembly provisionally suspended the King Louis as reining monarch. They placed him and Queen Marie Antoinette under guard. Despite attempts at compromise Louis was accused of treason and tried.
The monarchies of Europe ralied to the defence of the King and Queen. A combined Austrian-Prussian-army accompanied by Royalist forces invaded France and moved toward Paris with the intention of freeing the King and Queen an supressing the Revolutionaries. The Austrians were especially concerned because Queen Marie Antoinette was an Austrian princess. Revoltionary authorities cobeled together a force of regular army troops that had declared loyalty to the Republic and revolutionary volunteers. To the surprise of most of Europe, the new French army emerged victorious at Valmy (August 1792). The French artillery was especially effective. The French gained another victory over the Austrians at the Battle of Jemappes in the Netherlands.
The defeat of the Austrian-Prussian armies strngthened the hands of King's enemies. The Revolutionary government ordered the execution of King Louis and Marie-Antoinette (January 1793). King Louis XVI was guilotined on ?? and Queen Marie Antonitte followed him a few months later. The execution of the King and Queen made any accomodaton with the Republic impossible. Other monarchs felt that the continued eistence of the French Republic endangered thir thrones, viewing it as adeadly contagion. The execution of the King in articula transformed the British and their powerful fleet into a foe committed to overturning the reignicides.
Vendée is a coastal region south of Britainty bordered by the Loire River in west central France. A revolt broke out there that was perhaps the most serious internal challenge to the Revolution. Conditions in the Vendée were not as favorable to the Revolution as in Paris and manyb other regions of France. Class differences were not as pronounced. The Vendée was a relatively isolated province. The nobility was highly residential and seems to have maintained relatively good relations with the peasantry. There was also a strong devoltion to the Catholic Church. And problems began with the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790)
Agents informed the Convention of the disturbing oposition to theRevolution in the Vendée (1791). The Marquis de la Rouerie organized aroyalist plot. The breaking point was the National Convention's decision to expand the army with a levy of 300,000 men (February 1793). The Vendée erupted. One of the martial myths of the Revolution came out of the fighting in the Vendée--Joseph Barra.
The French Revolution rather than the moderate American Revolution set the pattern for revolutionary movements. The Revolution soon spun out of control. The Revolution abandoned its motto Liberté, Egalité, and Fraternité and great Deckaration on the Rights of Man. Led by Robespierre, it descended into terror--the Reign of Terror. As would prive to be the case in the great revolutions of the 20th century, the Revolution after dispatching the nobility and other royalists turned on its own. Next came the moderate girondists and soon anyone could be guist for the guillotine. The Constitution of 1791 was to be the permanent constitution for a new France. Instead Frrance has had 11 different constitutions, two monarchies, two empires, and five republics. Much of this instability can be traced to Robespierre and the Reign of Terror. The great tragedy is that future Revolutions would make the blood letting of the Rign of Terror look inconsequential.
New foreign armies invaded France and achieved some successes. The Republic declares a national levee en masse, significantly expanding the army. The French commanders are able to first stop the foreign armies. The French then over 2 years drive the Austrians whatis now Belgium and then The United Provinces (Northern Holland). Failing to achieve any success, many countries (Hanover, Prussia, Saxony, and Spain) withdre from the coalition. Only Austraia and Britain by 1795, continued fighting against Revolutionaly France.
Austria, unlike Britain, had no Channel separting them from the French. Austria now was fighting the French on the continent alone. The conflict ebbed and flowed. Archduke Charles held the French generals Joubert and Moreau at bay in Germany. Disaster befill the Autrian forces in Italy. A young general, skilled in the use of artillery, Napoleon Buonaparte, forced the Austrians out of northern Itly in a brilliant campaign of devestaing speed. Napoleon's Army of Italy in only a years gained control over the Po River Valley. He then moved north, joined with Joubert's forces and moved on Vienna. The Austrian's were forced to ask for peace terms. The Austrian capitulation left Britain alone
It is the wars and domestic violence, especially The Terror, which is most often associated with the French Revolution. The Revolution was in fact an era of enormous social change, which is reflected in the changing fashions of the day. One major development was the cahnging role of women in social life. Upper and middle class women until the French Revolution were largely secluded at home. This was less true for poor women who were forced to work, both inside and outside the home. It became common for women, at least in Western Europe, to join in squares and promenades to socialize and show off their latest frocks and bonnets. Unmarried younger women would of course be strictly supervised. Women also began to joint benevolent socities for a variety of charitable purposes. Influential courtisans in France before the REvolution hosted salons where men and women could gather to discuss ideas, listen to music, and socialize. After the Revolution, such gatherings became much more common for both the upper and middke class.
The new American Republic was a minor actor in the late 18th century. The American reaction to the French Revolution was of little consequence at the time, but it is interesting. The United States was at the time the only Republic of any consequence All other important countries were monarchies. As Frence, albeit the monarchy, played a critical role in the Revolution, it would seem that America would have been a strong ally of the Revolution. And indeed there were partisans of France and the Revolution in america, especially at the beginning of the Revolution. This was, however, suprisingly limited, especially given the intensity of anti-English feeling in the country. President Washington wisely saw the need for America to stay out of European wars. Perhaps more importantly, while anti-English feeling was rampant, America had largely retained Engkish values and law. More than anything it was the turn toward violence that frightened many Americans. This was especiallt rue in the South which found the focus on equality especially dangerous. The XYZ Affair caused enormous resentment in America.
African slavery became well estanlished in European colonies, including French colonies, during the 17th century. African slavery was an important economic institition by the 18th century, especially important for the Caribbean sugar islands which were a major element in Western European economies. France lost most of its empire to the British, but retained imporant Caribbean islands. Liberty was a byword of the French Revolution as it had been in the American Revolution. But like the Americans, the leaders of the French Revolution did not move toward abolition. In America any step toward abolition during the Revolution or the frameing of the Constitution would have meant disunion as it would have been unacceptable to the southern colonies. In France it appears to redlect the bouergoise character of the Revolution and the economic importance of Caribbean slavery to the French economy. While France did not move toward abolition, the Revolution did have substantial reverberations, both in the Caribbean and in England which affected slavery.
A fascinating footnote of modern history is that perhaps the greastest French leader of all time, Napoleon Bonaparte, as a boy did not speak French and grew up hateing France. He was sent by his father, who has decided to coolaborate with the French invaders, to study in a French military school. Napoleon never really forgave his father for collaborating with the French. It was in these schools, however, where he was dismissed as a foreign nobody that Napoleon virtually slowly became French--although he was unaware of it at the time.
It is difficult to decide just when the wars of the French Republic become the Napoleonic Wars. We believe that the victory over the Austrians is probably the best point. TIn the next major French campaign, Napoleon although not yet Emperor has become the dominate force in France. The Napoleoic Wars extended over nrarly 20 years and included a number of distinct campaigns. The important campaign of the Napoleonic Wars are Egypt (1798-1801), Second
Coalition (1798-1801), Third Coalition (1805), Fourth Coalition (1806-07), Fifth Coalition (1809), the Peninsular War, (1808-14), Invasion of Russia (1812), Germany (1813), Invasion of France (1814), and the 100 days campaign (1815). British actions against American shipping resulted in a war with the fledgling United States, referred to as the War of 1812 in America.
I am not entirely sure what the modern French view is of the Rvolution. Surely this depends in part on the politcal philosophy of each individual. A French reader writes, "French schools teach that the Revolution brought great social progress. Just what that progress was is a matter of conjecture. The constitution was built on the precepts " Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité ". These three words are today written everywhere. Hopefully other French readers will tell us what they were taught in school. France of course has assisted American in its Revolutionary War, depite the fact that the country was at the time a monarchy. There was great sympathy in America at first for the Revolution, but as it descenxded into violence and terror, America turned away in horror. Today Historians still debate m,any asoects of the Revolution. The Revolution was of course Europe's first majopr break with monary and first attemp to govern a major country by a republic. The results send shivers through much of Europe for decades. Perhaps the most enduring question flowing from the Revolution was whether Naoleon was the end or continuation of the Revolution.
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Created: August 15, 2002
Last updated: 4:53 AM 7/21/2008